Human Resource Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Human Resource - Essay Example As s result, the future of personnel functions will demand skills in managing a diverse work force that includes coaching, ethical decision making, and employee motivation. The bottom up communication in the organization encourages employee participation. This involves participation in decision making, idea generation among other benefits. This when adopted will come in hand to mitigate the common problems that are associated with autocratic management and top bottom way of communication. The organization should focus on the employee relations so that the employer- employee relationship is enhanced or strengthened. This can be achieved through implementing a performance management system. As such the employees are able to receive feedback, understand the expectations of their employers, and meet their obligations of achieving high performance. This should also involve a regular schedule of performance appraisals. As a result there will be reduction in employee turnover and the employees will be committed to achieving excellence. The recruiters should be held accountable for the far employment practices. As such the process should be above board to ensure a focus is laid on experience, skills, expertise and other relevant

The role of coaching in improving performance Essay

The role of coaching in improving performance - Essay Example Had it not been for the coaching that they had received at the right time, they would still be struck at one place or the other. International Coach Federation (ICF), the international accrediting body for coaching, the defines coaching as, â€Å" an ongoing partnership that helps [people] produce fulfilling results in their personal and professional lives and†¦deepen their learning, improve their performance, and enhance their quality of life†. In Sir John Whitmore’s words, coaching is defined as â€Å"unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them.† (Whitmore 2002). A coach could be someone to train you in a new skill, encourage and motivate you, give you feedback for improvement and provide you with individual attention. Plants grow in wild; however they cannot match the yield from that of a well-cultured farm. The culturing that creates a well-maintained farm out of an unevenly undulated jungle in what coaching does to an individual. At an organization level, training plays a very significant role. After getting fresh talent into the organization, it is the responsibility of the management, to ensure that they are provided with the right training plus coaching at the right time. Only this will guarantee that they work in alignment to company’s goals and objectives. Coaching at its basic level is ‘observation and feedback’. (Luecke 2004). This simple yet magical definition can turn around organizations and boost-up individual performances to great heights. That is, coaches will normally be experts, who has 360 degree experience in the field, using which they can guide prospective employees on the opportunities and challenges of undergoing coaching. (Sherman and Freas 2004). The corrective measures needed or the area to be focused and worked upon will be obtained through the feedback. Thus coaching can pump in the invaluable component of ‘trigger for change’ into

Effect of Brand Loyalty on Advertising

Effect of Brand Loyalty on Advertising Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background and context: Each business has a product, whether they have deliberately urbanized it or not. A brand is merely anticipation or a guarantee of an understanding. Whether that anticipation is gullible, reliable, pioneering, or enjoyable, trademarks are short-hand for relating the approach a trade, cluster, artefact, service, superstar or other body narrates to its shareholders (for instance., shoppers, benefits, issues, workers, sponsors, helpers, dealers, etc.). A strapping brand influences all as of the aptitude to employ top flair plus to prospect to cultivate the base line. Modest doubt that further and further notice is being paid to measuring and manage brands as advantages. The approach to fabricate a strapping brand is to set shoppers plus their requirements at the hub of each judgment the business formulates. In excess of instance, â€Å"shopper-centric† recital form delineation in the souk place as well as build exciting associations by means of shoppers. This separated tie, known as â€Å"brand fairness†, is an authentic plus priceless advantage by means of concrete proceeds in provisions of shopper devotion, productivity, as well as lagging as of unenthusiastic advertising or spirited act. (Bajarin, 2005) 1.1.1 Brand Fairness: Brand fairness is the summation entirety of knowledge regarding the brand by all shareholders, counting shoppers, stakeholders plus workers. It comprises all that persons sense as well as believe regarding the trademark as a result of straight understanding, gossip; moments-of-truth by means of the brand plus the brands advertising recital. It comprises a store of prospect cash flow plus proceeds. High-quality evaluates of brand fairness can offer signs as to the outlook income inclinations. If brand impartiality is declining, this is a pointer of piling up problem. If brand fairness is growing, one is devoting in prospect presentation, albeit its not screening through in proceeds at present. (De Freitas, 2005) The aim of the brand management concept is to build strapping brands though what is a strapping brand, besides? In overseeing Brand fairness, brand fairness was described as the brand possessions (or charges) related to a brands identity plus sign that adjoin to (or take away as of) an artefact or service. These possessions can be clustered into four measurements: brand consciousness, apparent excellence, brand links, as well as brand faithfulness. These four measurements show brand expansion, organization plus dimension. (Thurrott, 2004) * Brand consciousnessis a frequently underrated advantage; though, alertness has been exposed to influence insights as well as even flavour. Public like the recognizable plus are ready to assign all kinds of high-quality approaches to substance that are recognizable to them. The Intel Inside promotion has radically transported consciousness into insights of technical advantage and souk reception. * Perceived excellenceis a particular kind of alliance, partially for the reason that it sways brand relations in some situations plus partially for the reason that it has been empirically exposed to shape productivity (as deliberate by equally ROI plus supply return). * Brand linkscan be something that joins the shopper to the product. It can comprise customer metaphors, artefact description; employ conditions, organisational relations, brand character as well as signs. Much of product organization engages formative what relations to expand plus then creating methods that will bond the relations to the product. * Brand faithfulnessis at the spirit of any products worth. The notion is to reinforce the dimension as well as strength of each fidelity section. A product by means of a little though extremely faithful shopper support can have major fairness. (Thurrott, 2004) Brand fairness decides a products strength plus might as well as its economic worth. Reliable evaluates of product fairness can assist recognize a brands development in the direction of its objectives. Even though these channels require to be customized to an exacting trade viewpoint as well as reproduce the brands planned landmarks, this study advocates a blend of the subsequent advancements: * Inputs: The sum of promotion plus communication pays outs as a proportion of trades. For some businesses this is a major obligor of product fairness. This cluster can in addition comprise other interior determines, such as ‘novelty hold up plus other cultural characteristics. * Midway measures: these attempts to unearth the shareholders consciousness with insight of the product as well as their outlook in the direction of it, virtual to rivals. Revealing concerns, such as shopper contentment or apparent excellence, throughout qualitative study can assist the trademark proprietor appreciate shopper incentives (or be short of thereof) to buy. * Presentation: How shareholders essentially perform? â€Å"Deals† is a major metric here, down with of souk split, shopper withholding, faithfulness plus incidence of acquire. Evaluating the products fairness is vital to defining competent as well as successful: Shopper strategies which souks offer mainly latent? Marketing strategies Which facet of the advertising mix requirements further spotlight? Budget shareHow much to spend moreover in what? Recitals tracking how the trade is performing in excess of time plus in relation to rivals? By accepting the power of the shopper association by means of the product, one can begin to estimate how susceptible the product is to novel applicants or to temporary endorsements, as well as how much can be malformed devoid of ‘disaffecting faithful shoppers. Brand fairness comprises of constituents such as the product organizations, souk essentials in addition to advertising possessions that discriminate one product as of another plus that sway a shoppers acuities of or information regarding a trademark. When brand rudiments are positive in a shoppers intellect, brand fairness is measured to be optimistic. When they are not constructive, the brand fairness is unenthusiastic. Optimistic relations of a brand in a shoppers intellect are usually strapping plus further maintainable than those of an artefact, supposing that enough speculations are being prepared in suitable product administration. Brands by means of optimistic fairness will constantly produce, exploit as well as c ultivate cash flows. They attain this by directing a cost payment, permitting for make expansions plus certifications, making fences of admission, drawing as well as keeping further precious purchasers, plus dipping the outlay of shopper attainment. Optimistic brand fairness impels shopper importance, which consecutively impels investor importance. To influence optimistic brand fairness, dealers have to obtain a calculated advance to recognizing, budding as well as overseeing brand rudiments pertinent to the business plus its artefacts. (De Freitas, 2005) 1.1.2 Advantages of brand fairness: What are the advantages of strapping trademark fairness? Well, strapping brand fairness directs to, inter alia, strapping souk split, shopper faithfulness, further positive reply to outlay augments, less susceptibility to rival commotion, brand conservatory prospects, plus message communications which arrive at the shopper. In reaching these advantages, strapping brand fairness will guarantee that an artefact is of a lasting temperament. Eventually, strapping brand fairness will advance productivity. To construct a captivating brand, consequently, is to appreciate the association flanked by brand fairness plus souk split, as well as to influence together to their full latent. In so achievement, a trademark will be flourishing moreover maintainable in the extended period. It have to be kept in intellect that rising souk split does not augment brand fairness, while escalating brand fairness always directs to augmented souk split. (De Freitas, 2005) Modern era point to vital transforms in the advertising approaches engaged by trades looking presumptuous to uphold spirited advantage; the fiscal strength of these businesses is so far relying on the amount of data that is composed in views to shopper purchasing actions. These trades have routed to the receipt of presentation plus sociological researches for the motive to build up this pertinent information as well as to further the business accommodating the shopper of purchasing approach. The research in these areas are an endeavour to set up a association flanked by purchaser expenditure as well as the major constituents engaged in shopper favourites in terms of advance, cognition, insight plus knowledge. (Thurrott, 2004) Associations shifting their spotlight as of an artefact/souk ambitious technique to shopper focused publicity actions reflect this development of advertising. As a straight outcome of this move, trades are currently typifying much further worth on the response shopper show in regards to the 4Ps (price, product, place and promotion) as well as have further implemented three added Ps, physical layout, process as well as people (Kotler, 1999). Existing souk propensity demonstrates that the homogeneity of artefact has augmented; meaning that a small number of practical differences flanked by chief rivals at present subsists in generally extremely spirited souks. This demur in artefact demarcation is calculated to be the straight outcome of elevated stages of rivalry that is found inside todays souks, as well as the technical proceeds of manufacturing plus allotment methods. For the reason that these advances have abridged the ability of technical modernisms to current maintainable spirited advantage as well as have prepared artefact isolation dreadfully complicated (Levitt, 1983; Kotler, 2000) Shoppers are usually classified into clusters by similar demographic features or artefact trade approach. Precedent study regarding this subject has determined on the readiness of shoppers to pay for exact artefacts, the authority of shopper fears, plus demographic account of the shopper in association by means of their meat purchasing tendencies. Several of these learning can be hard to attain shopper alliance, ensuing in a controlled sum of statistics. By means of a restricted number of shopper participants, facts assessment might be mathematical unacceptable or usually impetuous. Yet still, there is verification that shoppers are eager to disburse a first-class rate for stable, enjoyable artefacts which are up to their expectations. (Bajarin, 2005) The consideration of brand fairness has involved scholastics as well as consultants for further than a decade, mainly due to the insinuation in todays souk place of building, maintaining plus with brands to reach deliberate gain. The initiative demotes to the original thought that an artefacts worth to shoppers, the business plus the industry is one way or another improved when it is linked or recognized over time by means of a compilation of exclusive rudiments that describe the brand initiative. Evidently, such fairness contribution comes as of active or latent shopper knowledge which leans how the artefact is resolute as well as acted upon by shoppers. It rises to motive that such education is vivacious and wins over shopper option developments and results moreover straight or not directly by influencing the competence of the labelled relics advertising blend constituents. This thesis defies slotting in a number of the key fresh viewpoints on brand fairness plus contribution a pla n for outlook brand fairness investigate in an atmosphere where the internet as well as stockpile brands indicate a novel genuineness. Different definitions of product fairness have been proposed in the narrative. Aaker (1991) classified brand fairness as a cluster of brand controls plus accountabilities related to a trademark, its name plus image that add to or deduct as of the merit obtainable by an artefact or service to a corporation and/or to the businesss shoppers. Keller (1993) presented a cognitive psychology insight; illuminating shopper-based brand fairness as the degree of difference result that product at present projection has on shopper retort to the advertising of that brand. Assuming an information economic cross-section, Erdem and Swait (1998) disputes that shopper-based product fairness is the rate of a product as a likely sign of an artefacts situation. Further in general, brand fairness is time plus again measured as the additional worth to the trade, the organization, or the shopper by means of which a product donates a artefact (Farquhar 1989); or improbable as the divergence flanked by the wor th of the labelled item to the shopper as well as the significance of the artefact devoid of that branding (McQueen, 1991). These descriptions split the notion that the worth of a product to a business is shaped during the brands authority on shoppers. Quite a few brand fairness conceptualizations are further concurrent to shoppers by prominence shopper-based information such as trademark unions (Aaker 1991), brand information (Keller 1993), obvious accuracy plus trustworthiness of the product information under defective as well as asymmetric information (Erdem and Swait 1998). It is understandable that brand fairness accrues in excess of time via shopper learning as well as choice making progressions. Consequently, there is a necessity to demonstrate how consumer knowledge as well as selection practices shape plus drive brand fairness formation. The assessment of these dissimilar study flows demonstrates that the brand impartiality initiative might be documented well enough if scrutinized in an enlarged framework that measures the incremental consequence of the product at each of the dissimilar phases of the shoppers selection course. Consequently, brand fairness might play a character in how information (e.g. characteristics) is knowledgeable as well as prearranged plus then improved in addition to engaged in decision and selection. These information dispensation consequences would influence part-worth appraisal and mixture regulations, alternative set production plus at last the choice system adopted in selection. This broad description broaden the collective conceptualization intrinsic in the preservative brand sway thought of brand fairness (i.e. enhanced charisma confined in the usefulness purpose) to an added total idea that hubs on the brands liability athwart the multi-phase plus vivacious shopper selection practice. (Bajarin, 2005) As a straight outcome, branding has emerged as a vital facet of modern advertising rules as well as is at present measured a key managerial advantage (Kotler, 2000). The representative principles associated by means of brand names have turn out to be the foundation for artefact division, by means of foremost strategies trying to duplicate key features that are conductive to key presentations related by means of consumer purchasing examples. An occurrence of the outcome branding has on the consumer purchasing choice development, is how branding is associated to the Mobile handset industry. By means of almost hundreds of interesting features, functions and shapes, it is an extremely aggressive trade that is still growing at a livid swiftness. By means of   millions mobile handset bought online and in the shops in the initial phase of 2005 only, mobile handset giants such as Nokia, Samsung, Sony Ericson, are all rival for control in this telecommunication souk place. Simply one though, the Nokia, has attained near power by means of 80% souk split in the UK in 2005 (OCC, 2005). By means of the arrival of the newest as well as the most excellent class plus features, Nokia has turn out to be one of the mainly pursued companies of the 21st century. Kari Kairamo CEO of Nokia has seen as being a chief role player to Nokia achievement narrative, by transforming as well as further budding Nokias brand representation, by making it further reachable to a wider customer markets plus expanding the Nokia make into the mobile handset trade. Nokia initiated the trade of handsets on the Internet, through their Nokia site as well as other associated sites plus different outlets and franchises all over the globe. This has earned Nokia million dollars in proceeds as of Nokia mobile handset deals in the second quarter of 2005 only and has escorted to the trade of an estimated 300 million newest handsets. (Smith 2005) The following thesis aims to determine the hypothetical authority of branding on the purchaser decision-making development as well look at its sway in real-life, via a vital assessment of Nokias employ of branding to affect the consumer decision-making course of purchasers in the Mobile handset industry in the United Kingdom. (De Freitas, 2005) 1.2 Project Aims and Objectives As the researcher as established, the significance of understanding branding plus its influence on contemporary day souks is vital to the health as well as growth of most industries. The aim of this dissertation is to put into viewpoint the functional values of branding as well as assess its role in the shopper purchase decision-making process. In order to further understand shopper recital by means of regards to branding, this study paper aims to add an exhaustively accepting of the procedure plus description that guide to the purchasers assessment of brands as well as the key drivers to building brand loyalty. This will be brought into focal point by a significant assessment of how Nokia has adopted this development to protect an 80% souk share in the Mobile phone division in the United Kingdom. In order to convene these outcomes, the researcher has set the following study question: â€Å"Choose the sway branding has on the purchaser purchasing choice-making enjoyed by measuring its utilization by Nokia Mobile handsets, Inc. to affect the purchase decision-making procedure of purchasers in the Mobile handset industry in the United Kingdom.† In order to fully respond this study question, the following goals have been set: Set a suitable plus maintainable investigate question in order to attain a non-bias plus precise considerate on the theme in question; Present the core ideas behind branding, its worths as well as its practice in modern day advertising movements by reconsidering present literature pertaining to the topic substance; Choose whether a association flanked by purchaser identities as well as apparent brand identities is there; Choose the sway of branding on the shopper acquire executive procedure; Assess Nokias Nokia UKs current situation by conducting both outside as well as internal study; Critically measure the sway of branding via an assessment of Nokias practice of branding to protect its souk attendance in the Mobile phone business in the United Kingdom. 1.3 Background of the learning: This topic of brand loyalty is not one extremely vast but at the same time hold a great potential of richness in information and facts that majority of the people may not yet be aware of. This research will therefore provide in detail information about the topic and different strategies and relevant issues in order to enable the reader to understand the different issues that may or may not be involved in the success of advertising and trade promotions due to brand loyalty. 1.4 Statement of the problem: The topic â€Å"Effect of Brand loyalty on advertising and trade promotions† holds the key to the different sets of information that may be unveiled in this research. And that purely is the aim of the researcher. A lot has be written and said in the past about the topic, however the researcher still feels that there is further room for research which may make the research a complete resource for the reader and a fruitful resource when it comes to learn about the different aspect of brand loyalty, advertising and trade promotion and the different roles that are played by these issues in the success of a artefact or a trade. 1.5 Purpose of the study: The purpose of the study is to explore the world of branding and the influence that it plays in a shoppers approach toward the purchase of particular artefact and explore different strategies that are adopted by trades in order to attract these shoppers. 1.6 Research questions: Following is the research survey questions. Their responses are recorded in the appendices section: 1.6.1 Survey questions for Nokia Users: Gender Age Cluster Select your purchasing recital When deciding whether or not to decide Nokia was it vital to you that it have a trustworthy brand name? Would you articulate that being connected to a well-known brand is major to you? Were practical characteristics important to one when deciding to acquire on Nokia? Was the functional excellence of the handsets being better than alternatives a deciding feature in you choosing to purchase on Nokia? Do you believe the Nokia brand representation expresses fineness in terms of excellence? Would purchasing Nokia offer you an aspect of joy, as contrasting to purchasing any other brand? When choosing whether to use Nokia for the first time, did you thought about any previous information you had heard regarding Nokia? Do you recognize the Nokia brand representation to match your own individuality? Would purchasing Nokia make you feel further illustrious as individual than if you were to buy or sell any other make? 1.6.2 Survey questions for NON Nokia Users: Gender Age Cluster Choose you trade presentation (Refer to Page 2) When deciding whether or not to select Nokia, was it considerable to you that it has a decent brand identity? Would you articulate that being linked to a well-known trademark is vital to you? Where useful characteristics vital to you when planning to buy Nokia handset? Was the quality of the handset better than alternative similar products a deciding issue in you going for Nokia? Do you believe the Nokia UK brand representation expresses fineness in terms of excellence? Would purchasing Nokia give you a component of joy, as opposed to purchasing any other brand? When selecting whether to utilize Nokia for the first time, did you consider any previous information you had heard related to Nokia? Do you observe the Nokia trademark representation to match your own individuality? Would purchasing Nokia make you feel further illustrious as person than if you were to buy or sell substitute brands? 1.7Significance of study: The study holds great significance as it enables the reader to understand the different strategies applied by Nokia which has resulted in great success. And the shopper loyalty ratio has been improved with the help of these strategies. The study in addition uses different analytical tools in order to measure the importance of brand loyalty. 1.8 Organisation of the remainder of the study: The research will be divided in six main chapters. Chapter one will provide a detail introduction to the topic followed by chapter two that is the literature review. This chapter will discuss different researches that are carried out by researchers in the past. Chapter three will be the research methodology that will discuss various different techniques adopted by the researcher in order to complete the research. Chapter four is the discussion, findings and analysis where data will be analysed and discussion in detail in order to clear any existing doubts about the topic. Chapter five will be the concluding chapter of the research while chapter six will provide the different resources like, books, journals and articles that were used in order to carry out this research followed by appendices.   Chapter2 Literature Review: 2.1 Introduction In this section, the researcher seeks to launch an intellectual base as of which both further researches will be built upon. Its rationale will be to improve the readers indulgent of the different designs that branding engrosses, as well as its hypothetical sway on the purchaser purchasing choice-making course. The section is written under Murphys (1992) research that specify that as distinguishing features of artefacts turn out to be less perceptible, the probability of shoppers using branding associated prompts increases. Offerings, 2.2 Accepting Branding To attain a clear insight into the denotation of â€Å"branding†, one has to primarily elucidate what this mythical review demotes to as â€Å"artefacts†. Referring to Baker (2000), one can believe an artefact as being anything that can please the financial, emotional or useful requirements of a likely shopper. Baker (2000) furthers this definition by stating that the degree of which an â€Å"artefact† meets the above-mentioned requirements is chooses the artefacts â€Å"worth†. The frequently-intricate development of branding is a requirement that has been stimulated as of the extremely spirited temperament of mainly modern day industries. This rivalry has guide to artefact contributions that have turn out to be highly hard to distinguish for causes shaped in the previous chapter. In order to attend to this predicament, branding has turn out to be an extensive instrument worn by trades to emphasize their artefacts in highly soaked souks. In undertaking so, trades allow themselves to showcase their centre skills that they sense are required by shoppers (Hamel plus Prahalad, 1994). In modern day marketing, it has at present turn out to be the make itself that discriminates a trades artefacts obtainable for buy (Levitt, 1983). If one glances at Nokia Mobile handsets as an instance, several maintain that a move in the direction of brand orientated marketing methods have authorized them to split into the mobile handset souk plus further their existence in the IT souk. However others suppose that this is by no means a novel â€Å"move† however, somewhat the competent furthering of an already effectual brand representation. Allowing for that Nokia has at all times been at the front of original promotion as well as brand associative methods, by means of advertising feats such as the â€Å"1984†1 advertisement, the â€Å"Think different. Think Nokia† promotion movement or the further new â€Å"newest handsets† trades linking superstar supports. So what precisely is branding? Kotler (1999), describes branding as a â€Å"name, word, symbol, sign or devise, or a blend of these, aimed to recognize the merchandise or services of one vendor or cluster of suppliers plus to distinguish them as of those of contestants.† Feldwick (1995) furthers the proposal of demarcation that Kotler (1999) handles on, by comparing a make to â€Å"a familiar plus dependable brooch of derivation as well as a guarantee of appearance.† His study highlights the association flanked by the artefact plus the shopper as being involved to the branding procedure plus the spotting of offerings inside the communal background. He considers that a make replicates a businesss insubstantial declaration that the artefact will set up shoppers anticipations. Hitherto, the above-mentioned literature limits the results of branding to a shoppers understanding of how an exact make reports to his or her character based mannerisms. Macrae (1996) though, obscur ed by introducing the supplementary ingredient of â€Å"Brand spirit†, which he illustrates as being the spirit or extremely basis for being of a business. Macrae (1996) furthers this description, by explaining that a business has to believe its own employees by means of the same implication as its aimed shoppers, for the reason that equally is of identical worth. He justifies this by flaking light on the detail that it is the workers that endorse the artefacts or services in straight deals conditions, not the business. This thought of branding founds an obvious link flanked by a businesss interior working by means of the exterior world of shoppers, through their make. If one observes Nokia Mobile handsets, one can simply view Macraes (1996) meaning in practise. The notably unperturbed plus friendly ambience of the â€Å"Nokia Outlets† is shaped by the skilled personnel, which has to all be capable in the employee-preparation guidebook which strengthens the meaning of employees sharing the similar stage of make promise as shoppers. This permits purchasers as well as workers to interrelate flawlessly plus has twisted Nokia Stores into together a place of trade as well as an edifying hotspot for the 16 35 year old souk division (Bajarin, 2005). In modern day branding, the formation of touchable worth as well as insubstantial worth is typical in letting shopper the means to discriminate one make as of another (Hankinson as well as Cowing, 1993). The reader will value that it is this aptitude in exacting that divides a â€Å"make† as of a meagre â€Å"artefact†. King (1991) imprisons this by defining an artefact as an issue made tangible that can readily be copied by competitors. King (1991) continues by means of his distinction by clarifying that a brand is an intangible asset that is unique as well as timeless. This simple yet powerful definition insinuates that a brand is the core identity of an artefact. Kotler (1999) develops on the thought of individuality by stating that a brand is talented of expressing up to six different heights of sense to a targeted audience. This is there as the â€Å"Six measurements of the make† (De Freitas, 2005) Kotlers (1999) wide effort on the considerate of branding can be seen as the centre position flanked by Macrae (1996) as well as Feldwicks (1995) schools of thought. Despite Kotlers first description seeming openly unsophisticated, his prolonged meanings plus views on the various measurements of makes, offer a deeper accepting of how branding can be so much further than just symbols, plans as well as memorable mottos. Kotler institutes that branding as the formation of a profound link flanked by the business plus the shopper. As of the shoppers viewpoint, brand names are as primary as the artefact itself in the intelligence that they abridge the purchasing development, guarantee excellence plus at times shape as a foundation of articulacy therefore, have to a business souk a make name as nothing further than â€Å"just a name†, it would be missing the entire reason of artefact branding. The confront lies in initial a profound set of meanings for the brand. Once an aim souk division can imagine all six measurements of the brand, it will have instituted a strapping relationship inside the shoppers purchasing choice-making procedure. (Bajarin, 2005) 2.3 Learning Theories as of Cognitive Psychology: Keller (1993) outlooks brand acquaintance as a make joint that is concurrent to its individual organizations: artefact characteristics plus benefits, user imagery, as well as sentimental unions. The learning in addition proposes the requirement to centre on how brand responsiveness is shaped in excess of time. A number of researchers (e.g. Hoch as well as Deighton 1989) idealize knowledge as a premise testing procedure whereby narrative information is measured in terms of living ideas. The assertion is that live beliefs shape a working supposition that prejudices the experience, encoding as well as addition of novel information. Reliable by means of this vision of knowledge, assenting partialities might direct early brand principles to wield a leading sway on outlook brand knowledge plus persuade reliable brand presentation in excess of time. Premise trying hypothesis proposes that shoppers do not sustain generating novel supposition if not there is irresistible as well Effect of Brand Loyalty on Advertising Effect of Brand Loyalty on Advertising Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background and context: Each business has a product, whether they have deliberately urbanized it or not. A brand is merely anticipation or a guarantee of an understanding. Whether that anticipation is gullible, reliable, pioneering, or enjoyable, trademarks are short-hand for relating the approach a trade, cluster, artefact, service, superstar or other body narrates to its shareholders (for instance., shoppers, benefits, issues, workers, sponsors, helpers, dealers, etc.). A strapping brand influences all as of the aptitude to employ top flair plus to prospect to cultivate the base line. Modest doubt that further and further notice is being paid to measuring and manage brands as advantages. The approach to fabricate a strapping brand is to set shoppers plus their requirements at the hub of each judgment the business formulates. In excess of instance, â€Å"shopper-centric† recital form delineation in the souk place as well as build exciting associations by means of shoppers. This separated tie, known as â€Å"brand fairness†, is an authentic plus priceless advantage by means of concrete proceeds in provisions of shopper devotion, productivity, as well as lagging as of unenthusiastic advertising or spirited act. (Bajarin, 2005) 1.1.1 Brand Fairness: Brand fairness is the summation entirety of knowledge regarding the brand by all shareholders, counting shoppers, stakeholders plus workers. It comprises all that persons sense as well as believe regarding the trademark as a result of straight understanding, gossip; moments-of-truth by means of the brand plus the brands advertising recital. It comprises a store of prospect cash flow plus proceeds. High-quality evaluates of brand fairness can offer signs as to the outlook income inclinations. If brand impartiality is declining, this is a pointer of piling up problem. If brand fairness is growing, one is devoting in prospect presentation, albeit its not screening through in proceeds at present. (De Freitas, 2005) The aim of the brand management concept is to build strapping brands though what is a strapping brand, besides? In overseeing Brand fairness, brand fairness was described as the brand possessions (or charges) related to a brands identity plus sign that adjoin to (or take away as of) an artefact or service. These possessions can be clustered into four measurements: brand consciousness, apparent excellence, brand links, as well as brand faithfulness. These four measurements show brand expansion, organization plus dimension. (Thurrott, 2004) * Brand consciousnessis a frequently underrated advantage; though, alertness has been exposed to influence insights as well as even flavour. Public like the recognizable plus are ready to assign all kinds of high-quality approaches to substance that are recognizable to them. The Intel Inside promotion has radically transported consciousness into insights of technical advantage and souk reception. * Perceived excellenceis a particular kind of alliance, partially for the reason that it sways brand relations in some situations plus partially for the reason that it has been empirically exposed to shape productivity (as deliberate by equally ROI plus supply return). * Brand linkscan be something that joins the shopper to the product. It can comprise customer metaphors, artefact description; employ conditions, organisational relations, brand character as well as signs. Much of product organization engages formative what relations to expand plus then creating methods that will bond the relations to the product. * Brand faithfulnessis at the spirit of any products worth. The notion is to reinforce the dimension as well as strength of each fidelity section. A product by means of a little though extremely faithful shopper support can have major fairness. (Thurrott, 2004) Brand fairness decides a products strength plus might as well as its economic worth. Reliable evaluates of product fairness can assist recognize a brands development in the direction of its objectives. Even though these channels require to be customized to an exacting trade viewpoint as well as reproduce the brands planned landmarks, this study advocates a blend of the subsequent advancements: * Inputs: The sum of promotion plus communication pays outs as a proportion of trades. For some businesses this is a major obligor of product fairness. This cluster can in addition comprise other interior determines, such as ‘novelty hold up plus other cultural characteristics. * Midway measures: these attempts to unearth the shareholders consciousness with insight of the product as well as their outlook in the direction of it, virtual to rivals. Revealing concerns, such as shopper contentment or apparent excellence, throughout qualitative study can assist the trademark proprietor appreciate shopper incentives (or be short of thereof) to buy. * Presentation: How shareholders essentially perform? â€Å"Deals† is a major metric here, down with of souk split, shopper withholding, faithfulness plus incidence of acquire. Evaluating the products fairness is vital to defining competent as well as successful: Shopper strategies which souks offer mainly latent? Marketing strategies Which facet of the advertising mix requirements further spotlight? Budget shareHow much to spend moreover in what? Recitals tracking how the trade is performing in excess of time plus in relation to rivals? By accepting the power of the shopper association by means of the product, one can begin to estimate how susceptible the product is to novel applicants or to temporary endorsements, as well as how much can be malformed devoid of ‘disaffecting faithful shoppers. Brand fairness comprises of constituents such as the product organizations, souk essentials in addition to advertising possessions that discriminate one product as of another plus that sway a shoppers acuities of or information regarding a trademark. When brand rudiments are positive in a shoppers intellect, brand fairness is measured to be optimistic. When they are not constructive, the brand fairness is unenthusiastic. Optimistic relations of a brand in a shoppers intellect are usually strapping plus further maintainable than those of an artefact, supposing that enough speculations are being prepared in suitable product administration. Brands by means of optimistic fairness will constantly produce, exploit as well as c ultivate cash flows. They attain this by directing a cost payment, permitting for make expansions plus certifications, making fences of admission, drawing as well as keeping further precious purchasers, plus dipping the outlay of shopper attainment. Optimistic brand fairness impels shopper importance, which consecutively impels investor importance. To influence optimistic brand fairness, dealers have to obtain a calculated advance to recognizing, budding as well as overseeing brand rudiments pertinent to the business plus its artefacts. (De Freitas, 2005) 1.1.2 Advantages of brand fairness: What are the advantages of strapping trademark fairness? Well, strapping brand fairness directs to, inter alia, strapping souk split, shopper faithfulness, further positive reply to outlay augments, less susceptibility to rival commotion, brand conservatory prospects, plus message communications which arrive at the shopper. In reaching these advantages, strapping brand fairness will guarantee that an artefact is of a lasting temperament. Eventually, strapping brand fairness will advance productivity. To construct a captivating brand, consequently, is to appreciate the association flanked by brand fairness plus souk split, as well as to influence together to their full latent. In so achievement, a trademark will be flourishing moreover maintainable in the extended period. It have to be kept in intellect that rising souk split does not augment brand fairness, while escalating brand fairness always directs to augmented souk split. (De Freitas, 2005) Modern era point to vital transforms in the advertising approaches engaged by trades looking presumptuous to uphold spirited advantage; the fiscal strength of these businesses is so far relying on the amount of data that is composed in views to shopper purchasing actions. These trades have routed to the receipt of presentation plus sociological researches for the motive to build up this pertinent information as well as to further the business accommodating the shopper of purchasing approach. The research in these areas are an endeavour to set up a association flanked by purchaser expenditure as well as the major constituents engaged in shopper favourites in terms of advance, cognition, insight plus knowledge. (Thurrott, 2004) Associations shifting their spotlight as of an artefact/souk ambitious technique to shopper focused publicity actions reflect this development of advertising. As a straight outcome of this move, trades are currently typifying much further worth on the response shopper show in regards to the 4Ps (price, product, place and promotion) as well as have further implemented three added Ps, physical layout, process as well as people (Kotler, 1999). Existing souk propensity demonstrates that the homogeneity of artefact has augmented; meaning that a small number of practical differences flanked by chief rivals at present subsists in generally extremely spirited souks. This demur in artefact demarcation is calculated to be the straight outcome of elevated stages of rivalry that is found inside todays souks, as well as the technical proceeds of manufacturing plus allotment methods. For the reason that these advances have abridged the ability of technical modernisms to current maintainable spirited advantage as well as have prepared artefact isolation dreadfully complicated (Levitt, 1983; Kotler, 2000) Shoppers are usually classified into clusters by similar demographic features or artefact trade approach. Precedent study regarding this subject has determined on the readiness of shoppers to pay for exact artefacts, the authority of shopper fears, plus demographic account of the shopper in association by means of their meat purchasing tendencies. Several of these learning can be hard to attain shopper alliance, ensuing in a controlled sum of statistics. By means of a restricted number of shopper participants, facts assessment might be mathematical unacceptable or usually impetuous. Yet still, there is verification that shoppers are eager to disburse a first-class rate for stable, enjoyable artefacts which are up to their expectations. (Bajarin, 2005) The consideration of brand fairness has involved scholastics as well as consultants for further than a decade, mainly due to the insinuation in todays souk place of building, maintaining plus with brands to reach deliberate gain. The initiative demotes to the original thought that an artefacts worth to shoppers, the business plus the industry is one way or another improved when it is linked or recognized over time by means of a compilation of exclusive rudiments that describe the brand initiative. Evidently, such fairness contribution comes as of active or latent shopper knowledge which leans how the artefact is resolute as well as acted upon by shoppers. It rises to motive that such education is vivacious and wins over shopper option developments and results moreover straight or not directly by influencing the competence of the labelled relics advertising blend constituents. This thesis defies slotting in a number of the key fresh viewpoints on brand fairness plus contribution a pla n for outlook brand fairness investigate in an atmosphere where the internet as well as stockpile brands indicate a novel genuineness. Different definitions of product fairness have been proposed in the narrative. Aaker (1991) classified brand fairness as a cluster of brand controls plus accountabilities related to a trademark, its name plus image that add to or deduct as of the merit obtainable by an artefact or service to a corporation and/or to the businesss shoppers. Keller (1993) presented a cognitive psychology insight; illuminating shopper-based brand fairness as the degree of difference result that product at present projection has on shopper retort to the advertising of that brand. Assuming an information economic cross-section, Erdem and Swait (1998) disputes that shopper-based product fairness is the rate of a product as a likely sign of an artefacts situation. Further in general, brand fairness is time plus again measured as the additional worth to the trade, the organization, or the shopper by means of which a product donates a artefact (Farquhar 1989); or improbable as the divergence flanked by the wor th of the labelled item to the shopper as well as the significance of the artefact devoid of that branding (McQueen, 1991). These descriptions split the notion that the worth of a product to a business is shaped during the brands authority on shoppers. Quite a few brand fairness conceptualizations are further concurrent to shoppers by prominence shopper-based information such as trademark unions (Aaker 1991), brand information (Keller 1993), obvious accuracy plus trustworthiness of the product information under defective as well as asymmetric information (Erdem and Swait 1998). It is understandable that brand fairness accrues in excess of time via shopper learning as well as choice making progressions. Consequently, there is a necessity to demonstrate how consumer knowledge as well as selection practices shape plus drive brand fairness formation. The assessment of these dissimilar study flows demonstrates that the brand impartiality initiative might be documented well enough if scrutinized in an enlarged framework that measures the incremental consequence of the product at each of the dissimilar phases of the shoppers selection course. Consequently, brand fairness might play a character in how information (e.g. characteristics) is knowledgeable as well as prearranged plus then improved in addition to engaged in decision and selection. These information dispensation consequences would influence part-worth appraisal and mixture regulations, alternative set production plus at last the choice system adopted in selection. This broad description broaden the collective conceptualization intrinsic in the preservative brand sway thought of brand fairness (i.e. enhanced charisma confined in the usefulness purpose) to an added total idea that hubs on the brands liability athwart the multi-phase plus vivacious shopper selection practice. (Bajarin, 2005) As a straight outcome, branding has emerged as a vital facet of modern advertising rules as well as is at present measured a key managerial advantage (Kotler, 2000). The representative principles associated by means of brand names have turn out to be the foundation for artefact division, by means of foremost strategies trying to duplicate key features that are conductive to key presentations related by means of consumer purchasing examples. An occurrence of the outcome branding has on the consumer purchasing choice development, is how branding is associated to the Mobile handset industry. By means of almost hundreds of interesting features, functions and shapes, it is an extremely aggressive trade that is still growing at a livid swiftness. By means of   millions mobile handset bought online and in the shops in the initial phase of 2005 only, mobile handset giants such as Nokia, Samsung, Sony Ericson, are all rival for control in this telecommunication souk place. Simply one though, the Nokia, has attained near power by means of 80% souk split in the UK in 2005 (OCC, 2005). By means of the arrival of the newest as well as the most excellent class plus features, Nokia has turn out to be one of the mainly pursued companies of the 21st century. Kari Kairamo CEO of Nokia has seen as being a chief role player to Nokia achievement narrative, by transforming as well as further budding Nokias brand representation, by making it further reachable to a wider customer markets plus expanding the Nokia make into the mobile handset trade. Nokia initiated the trade of handsets on the Internet, through their Nokia site as well as other associated sites plus different outlets and franchises all over the globe. This has earned Nokia million dollars in proceeds as of Nokia mobile handset deals in the second quarter of 2005 only and has escorted to the trade of an estimated 300 million newest handsets. (Smith 2005) The following thesis aims to determine the hypothetical authority of branding on the purchaser decision-making development as well look at its sway in real-life, via a vital assessment of Nokias employ of branding to affect the consumer decision-making course of purchasers in the Mobile handset industry in the United Kingdom. (De Freitas, 2005) 1.2 Project Aims and Objectives As the researcher as established, the significance of understanding branding plus its influence on contemporary day souks is vital to the health as well as growth of most industries. The aim of this dissertation is to put into viewpoint the functional values of branding as well as assess its role in the shopper purchase decision-making process. In order to further understand shopper recital by means of regards to branding, this study paper aims to add an exhaustively accepting of the procedure plus description that guide to the purchasers assessment of brands as well as the key drivers to building brand loyalty. This will be brought into focal point by a significant assessment of how Nokia has adopted this development to protect an 80% souk share in the Mobile phone division in the United Kingdom. In order to convene these outcomes, the researcher has set the following study question: â€Å"Choose the sway branding has on the purchaser purchasing choice-making enjoyed by measuring its utilization by Nokia Mobile handsets, Inc. to affect the purchase decision-making procedure of purchasers in the Mobile handset industry in the United Kingdom.† In order to fully respond this study question, the following goals have been set: Set a suitable plus maintainable investigate question in order to attain a non-bias plus precise considerate on the theme in question; Present the core ideas behind branding, its worths as well as its practice in modern day advertising movements by reconsidering present literature pertaining to the topic substance; Choose whether a association flanked by purchaser identities as well as apparent brand identities is there; Choose the sway of branding on the shopper acquire executive procedure; Assess Nokias Nokia UKs current situation by conducting both outside as well as internal study; Critically measure the sway of branding via an assessment of Nokias practice of branding to protect its souk attendance in the Mobile phone business in the United Kingdom. 1.3 Background of the learning: This topic of brand loyalty is not one extremely vast but at the same time hold a great potential of richness in information and facts that majority of the people may not yet be aware of. This research will therefore provide in detail information about the topic and different strategies and relevant issues in order to enable the reader to understand the different issues that may or may not be involved in the success of advertising and trade promotions due to brand loyalty. 1.4 Statement of the problem: The topic â€Å"Effect of Brand loyalty on advertising and trade promotions† holds the key to the different sets of information that may be unveiled in this research. And that purely is the aim of the researcher. A lot has be written and said in the past about the topic, however the researcher still feels that there is further room for research which may make the research a complete resource for the reader and a fruitful resource when it comes to learn about the different aspect of brand loyalty, advertising and trade promotion and the different roles that are played by these issues in the success of a artefact or a trade. 1.5 Purpose of the study: The purpose of the study is to explore the world of branding and the influence that it plays in a shoppers approach toward the purchase of particular artefact and explore different strategies that are adopted by trades in order to attract these shoppers. 1.6 Research questions: Following is the research survey questions. Their responses are recorded in the appendices section: 1.6.1 Survey questions for Nokia Users: Gender Age Cluster Select your purchasing recital When deciding whether or not to decide Nokia was it vital to you that it have a trustworthy brand name? Would you articulate that being connected to a well-known brand is major to you? Were practical characteristics important to one when deciding to acquire on Nokia? Was the functional excellence of the handsets being better than alternatives a deciding feature in you choosing to purchase on Nokia? Do you believe the Nokia brand representation expresses fineness in terms of excellence? Would purchasing Nokia offer you an aspect of joy, as contrasting to purchasing any other brand? When choosing whether to use Nokia for the first time, did you thought about any previous information you had heard regarding Nokia? Do you recognize the Nokia brand representation to match your own individuality? Would purchasing Nokia make you feel further illustrious as individual than if you were to buy or sell any other make? 1.6.2 Survey questions for NON Nokia Users: Gender Age Cluster Choose you trade presentation (Refer to Page 2) When deciding whether or not to select Nokia, was it considerable to you that it has a decent brand identity? Would you articulate that being linked to a well-known trademark is vital to you? Where useful characteristics vital to you when planning to buy Nokia handset? Was the quality of the handset better than alternative similar products a deciding issue in you going for Nokia? Do you believe the Nokia UK brand representation expresses fineness in terms of excellence? Would purchasing Nokia give you a component of joy, as opposed to purchasing any other brand? When selecting whether to utilize Nokia for the first time, did you consider any previous information you had heard related to Nokia? Do you observe the Nokia trademark representation to match your own individuality? Would purchasing Nokia make you feel further illustrious as person than if you were to buy or sell substitute brands? 1.7Significance of study: The study holds great significance as it enables the reader to understand the different strategies applied by Nokia which has resulted in great success. And the shopper loyalty ratio has been improved with the help of these strategies. The study in addition uses different analytical tools in order to measure the importance of brand loyalty. 1.8 Organisation of the remainder of the study: The research will be divided in six main chapters. Chapter one will provide a detail introduction to the topic followed by chapter two that is the literature review. This chapter will discuss different researches that are carried out by researchers in the past. Chapter three will be the research methodology that will discuss various different techniques adopted by the researcher in order to complete the research. Chapter four is the discussion, findings and analysis where data will be analysed and discussion in detail in order to clear any existing doubts about the topic. Chapter five will be the concluding chapter of the research while chapter six will provide the different resources like, books, journals and articles that were used in order to carry out this research followed by appendices.   Chapter2 Literature Review: 2.1 Introduction In this section, the researcher seeks to launch an intellectual base as of which both further researches will be built upon. Its rationale will be to improve the readers indulgent of the different designs that branding engrosses, as well as its hypothetical sway on the purchaser purchasing choice-making course. The section is written under Murphys (1992) research that specify that as distinguishing features of artefacts turn out to be less perceptible, the probability of shoppers using branding associated prompts increases. Offerings, 2.2 Accepting Branding To attain a clear insight into the denotation of â€Å"branding†, one has to primarily elucidate what this mythical review demotes to as â€Å"artefacts†. Referring to Baker (2000), one can believe an artefact as being anything that can please the financial, emotional or useful requirements of a likely shopper. Baker (2000) furthers this definition by stating that the degree of which an â€Å"artefact† meets the above-mentioned requirements is chooses the artefacts â€Å"worth†. The frequently-intricate development of branding is a requirement that has been stimulated as of the extremely spirited temperament of mainly modern day industries. This rivalry has guide to artefact contributions that have turn out to be highly hard to distinguish for causes shaped in the previous chapter. In order to attend to this predicament, branding has turn out to be an extensive instrument worn by trades to emphasize their artefacts in highly soaked souks. In undertaking so, trades allow themselves to showcase their centre skills that they sense are required by shoppers (Hamel plus Prahalad, 1994). In modern day marketing, it has at present turn out to be the make itself that discriminates a trades artefacts obtainable for buy (Levitt, 1983). If one glances at Nokia Mobile handsets as an instance, several maintain that a move in the direction of brand orientated marketing methods have authorized them to split into the mobile handset souk plus further their existence in the IT souk. However others suppose that this is by no means a novel â€Å"move† however, somewhat the competent furthering of an already effectual brand representation. Allowing for that Nokia has at all times been at the front of original promotion as well as brand associative methods, by means of advertising feats such as the â€Å"1984†1 advertisement, the â€Å"Think different. Think Nokia† promotion movement or the further new â€Å"newest handsets† trades linking superstar supports. So what precisely is branding? Kotler (1999), describes branding as a â€Å"name, word, symbol, sign or devise, or a blend of these, aimed to recognize the merchandise or services of one vendor or cluster of suppliers plus to distinguish them as of those of contestants.† Feldwick (1995) furthers the proposal of demarcation that Kotler (1999) handles on, by comparing a make to â€Å"a familiar plus dependable brooch of derivation as well as a guarantee of appearance.† His study highlights the association flanked by the artefact plus the shopper as being involved to the branding procedure plus the spotting of offerings inside the communal background. He considers that a make replicates a businesss insubstantial declaration that the artefact will set up shoppers anticipations. Hitherto, the above-mentioned literature limits the results of branding to a shoppers understanding of how an exact make reports to his or her character based mannerisms. Macrae (1996) though, obscur ed by introducing the supplementary ingredient of â€Å"Brand spirit†, which he illustrates as being the spirit or extremely basis for being of a business. Macrae (1996) furthers this description, by explaining that a business has to believe its own employees by means of the same implication as its aimed shoppers, for the reason that equally is of identical worth. He justifies this by flaking light on the detail that it is the workers that endorse the artefacts or services in straight deals conditions, not the business. This thought of branding founds an obvious link flanked by a businesss interior working by means of the exterior world of shoppers, through their make. If one observes Nokia Mobile handsets, one can simply view Macraes (1996) meaning in practise. The notably unperturbed plus friendly ambience of the â€Å"Nokia Outlets† is shaped by the skilled personnel, which has to all be capable in the employee-preparation guidebook which strengthens the meaning of employees sharing the similar stage of make promise as shoppers. This permits purchasers as well as workers to interrelate flawlessly plus has twisted Nokia Stores into together a place of trade as well as an edifying hotspot for the 16 35 year old souk division (Bajarin, 2005). In modern day branding, the formation of touchable worth as well as insubstantial worth is typical in letting shopper the means to discriminate one make as of another (Hankinson as well as Cowing, 1993). The reader will value that it is this aptitude in exacting that divides a â€Å"make† as of a meagre â€Å"artefact†. King (1991) imprisons this by defining an artefact as an issue made tangible that can readily be copied by competitors. King (1991) continues by means of his distinction by clarifying that a brand is an intangible asset that is unique as well as timeless. This simple yet powerful definition insinuates that a brand is the core identity of an artefact. Kotler (1999) develops on the thought of individuality by stating that a brand is talented of expressing up to six different heights of sense to a targeted audience. This is there as the â€Å"Six measurements of the make† (De Freitas, 2005) Kotlers (1999) wide effort on the considerate of branding can be seen as the centre position flanked by Macrae (1996) as well as Feldwicks (1995) schools of thought. Despite Kotlers first description seeming openly unsophisticated, his prolonged meanings plus views on the various measurements of makes, offer a deeper accepting of how branding can be so much further than just symbols, plans as well as memorable mottos. Kotler institutes that branding as the formation of a profound link flanked by the business plus the shopper. As of the shoppers viewpoint, brand names are as primary as the artefact itself in the intelligence that they abridge the purchasing development, guarantee excellence plus at times shape as a foundation of articulacy therefore, have to a business souk a make name as nothing further than â€Å"just a name†, it would be missing the entire reason of artefact branding. The confront lies in initial a profound set of meanings for the brand. Once an aim souk division can imagine all six measurements of the brand, it will have instituted a strapping relationship inside the shoppers purchasing choice-making procedure. (Bajarin, 2005) 2.3 Learning Theories as of Cognitive Psychology: Keller (1993) outlooks brand acquaintance as a make joint that is concurrent to its individual organizations: artefact characteristics plus benefits, user imagery, as well as sentimental unions. The learning in addition proposes the requirement to centre on how brand responsiveness is shaped in excess of time. A number of researchers (e.g. Hoch as well as Deighton 1989) idealize knowledge as a premise testing procedure whereby narrative information is measured in terms of living ideas. The assertion is that live beliefs shape a working supposition that prejudices the experience, encoding as well as addition of novel information. Reliable by means of this vision of knowledge, assenting partialities might direct early brand principles to wield a leading sway on outlook brand knowledge plus persuade reliable brand presentation in excess of time. Premise trying hypothesis proposes that shoppers do not sustain generating novel supposition if not there is irresistible as well

Essay --

â€Å"You Learn Something New Every Day† Bud Blake, ‘Tiger’ (1918-2005) This comical strip of art created by â€Å"the genial cartoonist whose ‘Tiger’ comic strip was adored worldwide† (King Features, 2005) raises many important and striking questions. Although we have a general idea of what learning means, do we know its true definition? Do we understand its significance, its inevitable role in our everyday lives from the moment of birth? The old adage says â€Å"You learn something new every day†. So does that mean that learning is a continuous process? Or does it only happen in a classroom or a lecture room? How does learning happen? Is it a voluntary process or involuntary, conscious or unconscious? However, defining learning and explaining the various learning theories alone, does not provide enough accuracy or truthfulness when applying the theory to third-level students. It is vital to keep in mind who the modern Irish third-level student is as the interpretations may vary. The 21st century presents students of all diffe rent shapes and sizes, with various abilities and backgrounds. This essay will examine theories behind the phenomenon of learning in an attempt to draw up a vivid explanation of what it is, how it works and how it can be applied to a modern Irish third-level student. So what is learning? Well, it can be understood as â€Å"a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is brought about by experience† (Feldman, 2010) or â€Å"just a matter of creating associations among ideas as a direct result of experience† (Gleitman, Gross and Reisberg, 2010). Many other educational psychologists define learning as â€Å"the achievement of greater proficiency, mastery and fluency in a person’s capacity to know or do something that they were previo... .... Clearly, not all behaviour observed is repeated. If a satisfactory reward follows a behaviour, it will be repeated. If there is a punishment for carrying out a behaviour, chances are, it will not reoccur. Observational learning is really common third level education. If a student sees his friend study well, attend all lectures and tutorials and get rewarded with good grades and increased motivation, that student will be encouraged to do the same. Undeniably, no two people are the same. We all differ in one way or another, including in how we learn. We are born with different abilities and brought up in different circumstances through which the values of learning are passed on to us. Therefore, some students are more motivated to succeed than others. For example voluntary immigrant students perform better than those who are involuntary immigrants (Feldman, 2011).

Ethnic Groups and Racism Essay

GENERAL SOCIOLOGY/SOCIETY CULTURE â€Å"ETHNIC GROUPS AND RACISM† I. INTRODUCTION Race and ethnicity are important concepts in the field of sociology and are ones that are studied a great deal. Race plays a large role in everyday human interactions and sociologists want to study how, why, and what the outcomes are of these interactions. A race is a human population that is believed to be distinct in some way from other humans based on real or imagined physical differences. Racial classifications are rooted in the idea of biological classification of humans according to morphological features such as skin color or facial characteristics. An individual is usually externally classified (meaning someone else makes the classification) into a racial group rather than the individual choosing where they belong as part of their identity. Conceptions of race, as well as specific racial groupings, are often controversial due to their impact on social identity and how those identities influence someone’s position in social hierarchies. Ethnicity, while related to race, refers not to physical characteristics but social traits that are shared by a human population. Some of the social traits often used for ethnic classification include: †¢nationality †¢tribe †¢religious faith †¢shared language †¢shared culture †¢shared traditions Unlike race, ethnicity is not usually externally assigned by other individuals. The term ethnicity focuses more upon a group’s connection to a perceived shared past and culture. II. CONTENT/ CREATIVE REPORT DEFINITION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY Race is a socially defined category, based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people. Ethnicity is a socially defined category based on common language, religion, nationality, history or another cultural factor. Sociologists see race and ethnicity as social constructions because they are not rooted in biological differences, they change over time, and they never have firm boundaries. Example: White The distinction between race and ethnicity can be displayed or hidden, depending on individual preferences, while racial identities are always on display. THE SOCIOLOGICAL MEANING OF ETHNIC GROUPS AND RACISM The classification of people into races and ethnic groups carries deep implication on the social and political life of different racial and ethnic groups. These classifications led to the notion of racial superiority and racial inferiority, culturally advanced groups and culturally disadvantaged, the use of derogatory undertones and parody, apartheid policy, discrimination and prejudice, and stereotyping of groups of people. Ethnic conflicts have been regular process within the same territorial borders and among the nations of the world. Ethnic conflicts have been pervasive and dangerous because they cause massive humanitarian suffering, civil wars, and destabilizing effects. Sociologically, â€Å"race† refers to a group of people whom others believe are genetically distinct and whom they treat accordingly. This term is commonly used to refer to physical differences between people brought about by physical characteristics of genetic origin. This commonness of genetic heritage may be manifested in the shape of the head and face, the shape and color of the eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, and ears, the texture and color of the hair, the skin color, height, blood type and other physical characteristics. Among the significant racial categories studied by early social scientists were the Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and the subgroups of primary and derived races. Racial differences are seen as physical differences singled out by the community or society as ethnically significant. It is preferable to refer to ethnicity or ethnic groups rather than race for its historical and biological connotations. An ethnic group represents a number of persons who have a common cultural background as evidenced by a feeling of loyalty to a given geographical territory or leader, a feeling of identification with and unity among historical and other group experiences, or a high degree of similarity in social norms, ideas and material objects. Members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally different from other groups in the society and are viewed by others to be so. SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF MEMBERSHIP IN RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS Membership in racial and ethnic groups influences people’s social status and roles as they interact with others. Physical characteristics, especially skin color and certain distinctive cultural traits, complexes, and patterns, become badges for social and economic status. Frequently, they establish a person’s or groups position in the social stratification system and make up the foundation for prejudice, discrimination, and other forms of differential treatment. Furthermore, when an ethnic group becomes a target of discrimination, such group may utilize the unique physical or cultural traits as the rallying force for promoting common loyalties and enhancing collective action. When people’s definition of physical characteristics greatly affects their relationship, such definitions generally become interlinked with cultural differences. A classic example is the white man’s justification of his technological, economic, political and military superiority. Examples are such ideologies as the God-chosen race, the white man’s burden and more recently, the apartheid policy. Since the early days of the United States, Native Americans, African-Americans and European-Americans were classified as belonging to different races. But the criteria for membership in these races were radically different. For Africans, the government considered anyone with African appearance to be purely African. Native Americans, on the other hand, were classified based on a certain percentage of Indian blood. Finally, European-Americans had to have purely white ancestry. The differing criteria for assigning membership to particular races had relatively little to do with biology; it had far more to do with maintaining a group’s defined roles and position. Racial and ethnic membership leads to a sense of people-hood. By this, we mean a sense of identification with a relatively small segment of the world’s population- those who by virtue of common ancestry or heritage we consider â€Å"our own kind†. Erich Fromm wrote in 1941: â€Å"The identity with nature, clan, religion, gives the individual security. He belongs to, he is rooted in, structuralized whole in which he has an unquestionable place. He may suffer from hunger or suppression, but he does not suffer from worst of all pains- complete aloneness and doubt. † PATTERNS OF ETHNIC GROUP RELATIONS People who occupy a subordinate status are usually called a minority group. What determines a minority group is not the unique racial or ethnics traits nor their great number but the relationship of different groups in the society of which they are a part. A minority group, then is one that, because of the power of differences among the groups, is singled out for unequal treatment in the society. A minority refers to a group which, because of physical and cultural characteristics, occupies a subordinate position in the society and subjected to collective discrimination, in some cases, even segregation, oppression, slavery, peonage, military subjugation, religious persecution, and economic, political, educational, and social suppression. The patterns of ethnic group relations include the following: 1. Patterns of Racism a. Prejudice and discrimination †¢Racism – is behavior that is motivated by the belief that one’s own group is superior to other groups that are set apart on the basis of physical characteristics Structural racism refers to inequalities built into an organization or system. An example of structural racism can be seen in recent research on workplace discrimination. [37] There is widespread discrimination against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as â€Å"sounding black. † These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having â€Å"white-sounding names† to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. †¢Prejudice – prejudged negative attitude or opinion about a group without bothering to verify the merits of the opinion or judgment The relationship between prejudice and discrimination is complex. Robert Merton’s study and typology of the relationship between prejudice and discrimination Four patterns 1. Unprejudiced nondiscriminatory – integration 2. Unprejudiced and discriminatory – institutional discrimination 3. Prejudiced and nondiscriminatory – latent bigotry 4. Prejudiced and discriminatory – outright bigotry In his study, (1974), Bulatao listed impressions on some ethnic groups by respondents from five Philippine cities: Ilocanos and Chinese were viewed as most industrious, serious, thrifty; Tagalogs, progressive; Bicolanos and Cebuanos, humble, friendly, warm, and peaceful; Warays, lazy but strong; and Ilongos, proud and extravagant. b. Discrimination refers to the act of disqualifying or mistreating people on the basis of their group membership or on ascriptive rounds rationally irrelevant to the situation. Whereas prejudice is a state of mind, discrimination is actual behavior. Prejudice and discrimination work hand in hand to create and sustain racial and ethnic stratification, (Jarry J. 1987) THEORIES OF PREJUDICE Light gives the following explanations on the origin of prejudice: 1. Economic Theory- assumes that racial prejudice is a social attitude transmitted by the dominant ethnic majority class for the purpose of stigmatizing some group s as inferior so that the exploitation of the group resources will be justified. 2. Symbolic Theory- asserts that prejudice arises because a racial or ethnic group is a symbol of what people hate, fear, or envy. 3. Scapegoat theory- maintains that human beings are reluctant to accept their mistakes for their troubles and failures so they look for an ethnic-minority to shoulder the blame. 4. Social norm theory- asserts that ethnocentrism is a natural development of group living. Hatred and suspicion for the out-group are the standard and normal way of doing things, particularly in dealing with people. c. Stereotypes are often simplified and unsupported generalizations about others and are used indiscriminately for all cases. A few examples are Ilokano, â€Å"bantay kuako† (heavy smokers) and â€Å"kuripot† (stingy); Pampangueno, â€Å"dugong aso† (dog blood or traitors); Batangueno, â€Å"balisong† (knife-wielding); Bicolanos, â€Å"sili† ( pepper or hot people). 2. Patterns of Competition, Conflict and Domination When ethnocentric attitudes are coupled with intergroup competition for territory and scarce resources, an explosive social situation may arise. When two groups both strive for the same things- and they perceive their respective claims to be mutually exclusively and legitimate- the stage is set for conflict. In modern societies, the state has become the vehicle that enables one group to dominate and keep the other group subordinate. In sum, competition supplies the motivation for systems of stratification, and ethnocentrism directs competition along racial and ethnic lines, but power determines which group will subjugate the other (Noel, 1972; Barth and Noel, 1975). 3. Economic and Political Subjugation. The economic takeover of one nation by a more powerful one and the subsequent political and social domination of the native population is called colonialism. If the takeover of one nation is trough the military superiority of the more powerful one for the purpose of territorial expansion and establishing colonies, it is termed as military colonialism. On the other hand, if the economic takeover is made through the great technological superiority of the more powerful one, the institutionalization of their businesses in their former colonies, the control and domination of most of a colony’s natural resources, the imposition of trade policies and economic treaties favorable to their side; the establishment of outlets for their surplus capital; the need for more cheap labor, raw materials, and markets to fuel their growing economy, the process is termed neo-colonialism or economic imperialism. 4. Displacement and Segregation of the Native Population Economic and political subjugation of a minority population by a more powerful group is not the only pattern of conquest that occurs when different racial and ethnic group meet. Displacement of native population can be made possible through the influx of powerful settlers or invaders with their vastly superior weapons. It is typically found in areas rich in natural resources and similar in geography and climate to the homeland of the invading group. Displacement takes the following forms: a. ) by attrition, that is, numbers of the weaker group may die of starvation or disease either deliberately or not; b. ) by population transfer; and c. ) by genocide- deliberate and ruthless extermination of the weaker group. Segregation involves the enactment of laws and/or customs that restrict or prohibit contact between groups. Segregation may be ethnic or racial or based on sex or age. 5. Patterns of Accommodation and Tolerance. Interracial and interethnic accommodation can be carried out through miscegenation or amalgamation- the intermarriage of members of the majority and minority groups. This can result in the blending of their various customs and values and the creation of a new cultural hybrid. This involves a cultural and biological blending in which the customs and values of both groups are to some extent preserved and their biological characteristics appear in the offspring. 6. Patterns of Acculturation and Assimilation Acculturation and assimilation are two very important concepts in sociology and anthropology that describe cross cultural effects on both minorities as well as majorities in societies that are multi ethnic and multi cultural in nature. Assimilation is a broader concept as described by sociologist Jean Piaget and refers to the manner in which people take new information. There are many people who think of the two concepts as same and even use them interchangeably. If you belong to a minority community in a country and retain your own culture but cannot remain isolated and are affected by the majority culture in such a way that you adapt to some aspects of the majority culture, the process is referred to as acculturation. Assimilation is a process whereby people of a culture learn to adapt to the ways of the majority culture. There is a loss of one’s own culture as a person gives more value to the cultural aspects of the majority community in the process of assimilation. What is the difference between Acculturation and Assimilation? †¢ Meeting of cultures always produces results in terms of changes in both the cultures, and acculturation and assimilation refer to two important and different changes in these cultures. †¢ Assimilation refers to the process where some of the majority community’s cultural aspects are absorbed in such a manner that the home cultural aspects get mitigated or lost. †¢ Acculturation is a process where the cultural aspects of the majority community are adapted without losing the traditions and customs of the minority community. †¢ Minority culture changes in the case of assimilation whereas it remains intact in the case of acculturation. 7. Patterns of cultural Pluralism or Ethnic Diversity Cultural pluralism refers to the coexistence of different racial or ethnic groups each of which retains its own cultural identity and social structural networks, while participating equally in the economic and political systems. (Light, 1985) In pluralistic society, each group retains its own language, religion and customs, and its members tend to interact socially primarily among themselves. Yet all jointly participate in the economic and political systems and live in harmony and peaceful â€Å"coexistence†. A prime example of such an arrangement can be found in Switzerland. There, people of German, French, and Italian heritage preserve their distinct cultural ways while coexisting peacefully and equally. No one group enjoys special privileges or is discriminated against. ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES. Ethnic groups in the Philippines are classified according to certain physical, cultural, linguistic, religious and geographic criteria. A. According to distinctive physical traits 1. The Negritoes who are regarded as the aborigines of the Philippines. 2. The Indonesian- Malayan stock which is predominant among the Filipinos. 3. The Chinese who make up the largest national group. 4. The Americans and the Spaniards, and a few other Europeans who came as colonizers. B. According to cultural standpoints 1. Cultural minorities or cultural communities 2. Muslims 3. Christian groups C. According to linguistic groupings PANAMIN reports that there are about 87 ethno linguistic groups in the Philippines-e. g. , Tagalog, Ilokano, Waray, Hiligaynon, Kapampangan, Ilonggo, etc. D. According to religion 1. Roman Catholics 2. Muslims 3. Aglipayans 4. Protestants 5. Iglesia ni Cristo 6. Buddhists 7. Jehovah’s witnesses 8. Other religious sects. E. Muslims of Southern Philippines The Muslims make up the largest single non-Christian group. They have nine ethno-linguistic groups, namely: 1. Taosug 2. Maranao 3. Maguindanao 4. Samal 5. Yakan 6. Sanggil 7. Badjao 8. Molbog 9. Jama Mapun. From the Spanish regime to the present, Muslim and Christian intergroup relationships have been characterized by animosity and suspicion. This has been expressed in the Muslims’ ongoing resentment of Christian settlers and attempts at secession to form an independent Mindanao. Muslim revolutionary groups the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Bangsai Moro Liberation Front (BMLF) want Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan to secede from the Philippines. THE CULTURAL COMMUNITIES AND THE CHRISTIAN FILIPINOS The non-Christian Filipinos now known as cultural communities make up 10% of the total national population. They have maintained their culture in their clothes, art, religion, ethnic dialect, customs, traditions and other superficial differences. There are 77 major ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines. A. Northern Luzon 1. Isneg 11. Ivatan/Itbayat 21. Malaweg 2. Kalinga 12. Ilocano 22. Yogad 3. Ifugao 13. Apayao 23. Pangasinan 4. Bontok 14. Balangao 24. Palanan 5. Kankanai 15. Bago 25. Kapampangan 6. Ibaloi 16. Kalanguya 26. Tagalog 7. Gaddang 17. Iwak 27. Bicol 8. Tinggian 18. Isinay 28. Negrito 9. Ilongot 19. Ibanag 29. Sambal 10. Ibalahan 20. Itawit B. Smaller Groups in Luzon 1. Aetas 2. Dumagats of Quezon Province 3. Mangyans of Mindoro. 4. Hanunoo C. Visayas 1. Bataks 7. Aklanon 13. Solud 2. Keney 8. Rombloanon 14. Bukidnon 3. Negritoes 9. Bantoanon 15. Boholano 4. Alangans 10. Hiligaynon 16. Cebuano 5. Masbateno 11. Kiniray-a 17. Waray 6. Abakon 12. Hamtikanon D. Mindanao 1. Tagurays 8. Mansakas 15. Kamiguin 2. Tagabilis 9. Maranao 16. Mamanwa 3. Bilaans 10. Sangil/Sangir 17. Butuanon 4. Mandayas 11. Ilanun 18. Kamayo 5. Manobos 12. Maguindanao 19. Bagobo 6. Tasadays 13. Tiboli 20. Kalagan 7. Magtisalugs 14. Subanon 21. Kalibugan E. In Sulu/Tawi-Tawi 1. Yakan 2. Sama 3. Sama Dilaut 4. Tausug 5. Jama Mapun F. In Palawan 1. Tagbanua 2. Agutayanen 3. Kuyonen 4. Molbog. 5. Palawan 6. Batak 7. Tau’t Baten III. GROUP REFLECTION Within sociology, the terms race, ethnicity, minority, and dominant group all have very specific and different meanings. To understand the sociological perspective on race and ethnicity, it is important to understand the meanings of these concepts. An ethnic group is a social category of people who share a common culture, such as a common language, a common religion, or common norms, customs, practices, and history. Ethnic groups have a consciousness of their common cultural bond. An ethnic group does not exist simply because of the common national or cultural origins of the group, however. They develop because of their unique historical and social experiences, which become the basis for the group’s ethnic identity. For example, prior to immigration to the United States, Italians did not think of themselves as a distinct group with common interests and experiences. However, the process of immigration and the experiences they faced as a group in the United States, including discrimination, created a new identity for the group. Some examples of ethnic groups include Italian Americans, Polish Americans, Mexican Americans, Arab Americans, and Irish Americans. Ethnic groups are also found in other societies, such as the Pashtuns in Afghanistan or the Shiites in Iraq, whose ethnicity is base on religious differences. Like ethnicity, race is primarily, though not exclusively, a socially constructed category. A race is a group that is treated as distinct in society based on certain characteristics. Because of their biological or cultural characteristics, which are labeled as inferior by powerful groups in society, a race is often singled out for differential and unfair treatment. It is not the biological characteristics that define racial groups, but how groups have been treated historically and socially. Society assigns people to racial categories (White, Black, etc. ) not because of science or fact, but because of opinion and social experience. In other words, how racial groups are defined is a social process; it is socially constructed. A minority group is any distinct group in society that shares common group characteristics and is forced to occupy low status in society because of prejudice and discrimination. A group may be classified as a minority on the basis of ethnicity, race, sexual preference, age, or class status. It is important to note that a minority group is not necessarily the minority in terms of numbers, but it is a group that holds low status in relation to other groups in society (regardless of the size). The group that assigns a racial or ethnic group to subordinate status in society is called the dominant group. There are several sociological theories about why prejudice, discrimination, and racism exist. Current sociological theories focus mainly on explaining the existence of racism, particular institutional racism. The three major sociological perspectives (functionalist theory, symbolic interaction theory, and conflict theory) each have their own explanations to the existence of racism. Functionalist theorists argue that in order for race and ethnic relations to be functional and contribute to the harmonious conduct and stability of society, racial and ethnic minorities must assimilate into that society. Assimilation is a process in which a minority becomes absorbed into the dominant society – socially, economically, and culturally. Symbolic interaction theorists look at two issues in relation to race and ethnicity. First, they look at the role of social interaction and how it reduces racial and ethnic hostility. Second, they look at how race and ethnicity are socially constructed. In essence, symbolic interactionists ask the question, â€Å"What happens when two people of different race or ethnicity come in contact with one another and how can such interracial or interethnic contact reduce hostility and conflict? † The basic argument made by conflict theorists is that class-based conflict is an inherent and fundamental part of society. These theorists thus argue that racial and ethnic conflict is tied to class conflict and that in order to reduce racial and ethnic conflict, class conflict must first be reduced.

Traditional Healing System

A PROPOSED APPLICATION OF ETHNOMEDICAL MODELS TO TRADITIONAL HEALING SYSTEMS Stanley Kipper Ethnomedicine has become a topic of intensive study in recent years due, in part, to the work of the World Health Organization and other groups attempting to facilitate cooperation between indigenous practitioners and those trained in Western allopathic biomedicine.This chapter describes two ethnomedical systems (the North American Navajo tradition and the South American Peruvian Pachakuti curanderismo) in terms of two different models, one designed by Siegler and Osmond (1974), and one designed by a task force of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Each of these indigenous systems are found to be comprehensive, covering each facet of the models, and pointing the way for possible collaboration between allopathic biomedicine and various indigenous systems of healing, a project that has accelerated due to public demand (Iljas, 2006, p. 90). The term â€Å"ethnomedicine† refers to the comparative study of indigenous (or traditional) medical systems. Typical ethnomedical topics include causes of sickness, medical practitioners and their roles, and specific treatments utilized. The explosion of ethnomedical literature has been stimulated by an increased awareness of the consequences of the forced displacement and/or acculturation of indigenous peoples, the recognition of indigenous health concepts as a means of maintaining ethnic identities, and the search for new medical treatments and technologies.In addition, Kleinman (1995) finds ethnographic studies an â€Å"appropriate means of representing pluralism†¦ and of drawing upon those aspects of health and suffering to resist the positivism, the reductionism, and the naturalism that biomedicine and, regrettably, the wider society privilege†(p. 195). In his exhaustive study of cross-cultural practices, Torrey (1986) concluded that effective treatment inevitably contains one or more of four fundame ntal principles: 1. A shared world view that makes the diagnosis or naming process possible; 2.Certain personal qualities of the practitioner that appear to facilitate the patient's recovery; 3. Positive patient expectations that assist recovery; 4. A sense of mastery that empowers the patient. If a traditional medical system yields treatment outcomes that its society deems effective, it is worthy of consideration by allopathic biomedical investigators, especially those who are aware of the fact that less than 20 percent of the world’s population are serviced by allopathic biomedicine (Mahler, 1977; Freeman, 2004; O’Connor, 1995).However, what is considered to be â€Å"effective† varies from society to society (Krippner, 2002). Allopathic biomedicine places its emphasis upon â€Å"curing† (removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a patient to health), while traditional medicine focuses upon â€Å"healing† (attaining wholeness of body, mind , emotions, and/or spirit). Some patients might be incapable of being â€Å"cured† because their sickness is terminal. Yet those same patients could be â€Å"healed† mentally, emotionally, and/or spiritually as a result of the practitioner’s encouragement to review their life, to find meaning in it, and to become reconciled to death.Those who have been â€Å"cured,† on the other hand, may be taught procedures that will prevent a relapse or recurrence of their symptoms. An emphasis upon prevention is a standard aspect of traditional medicine, and is becoming an important part of biomedicine as well (Freeman, 2004; Krippner & Welch, 1992). A differentiation can also be made between â€Å"disease† and â€Å"illness. † From either the biomedical or the ethnomedical point of view, one can conceptualize â€Å"disease† as a mechanical difficulty of the body resulting from injury or infection, or from an organism’s imbalance with its e nvironment. Illness,† however, is a broader term implying dysfunctional behavior, mood disorders, or inappropriate thoughts and feelings. These behaviors, moods, thoughts, and feelings can accompany an injury, infection, or imbalance—or can exist without them. Thus, one may refer to a â€Å"diseased brain† rather than an â€Å"ill brain,† but use the phrase of â€Å"mental illness† rather than of â€Å"mental disease. † Cassell (1979) goes so far as to claim that allopathic biomedicine treats disease but not illness; â€Å"physicians are trained to practice a technological medicine in which disease is their sole concern and in which technology is their only weapon† (p. 8). Healing models The Siegler-Osmond Model Comparisons between biomedicine and ethnomedicine can be made utilizing hypothetical structures such as the 12-faceted model proposed by Siegler and Osmond (1974). In the social and behavioral sciences, a â€Å"model† is an explicit or implicit explanatory structure that underlies a set of organized group behaviors. Their use in science attempts to improve understanding of the process they represent. Models have been constructed to describe human conflict, competition, and cooperation.Models have been proposed to explain mental illness, personality dynamics, and family interactions. I have modified the Siegler-Osmond model, making it applicable to both â€Å"physical† and â€Å"mental† disorders, although traditional practitioners usually do not differentiate between the two. The utility of the Siegler-Osmond model can be demonstrated by comparing a shamanic medical model, an eclectic folk healing model, and the allopathic biomedical model on 12 dimensions: 1. Diagnosis 2. Etiology 3. Patient’s behaviour 4. Treatment 5. Prognosis . Death and suicide 7. Function of the institution 8. Personnel 9. Rights and duties of the patient 10. Rights and duties of the family 11. Rights and duties of the society 12. Goal of the model. The Navaho Indian healing model The Navaho healing system serves as an example of the application of the Siegler and Osmond model. The term â€Å"Navaho† (or â€Å"Navajo†) is used by anthropologists to refer to the largest Native American tribe in the United States; the Navaho reservation in the south west part of the country comprises 16 million acres.The word â€Å"Navaho† is derived from the Spanish term for â€Å"people with big fields,† but in their own language, they call themselves the Dineh people. They are members of the southern Athapaskan linguistic group and occupy plateau areas of north eastern Arizona, overlapping into New Mexico and Utah. Geertz (1973) points out that the entire lifestyle of a culture is built upon its mythic view of â€Å"reality. † The Navaho ethic values â€Å"calm deliberativeness, untiring persistence, and dignified caution† and the Navahos view nature as â⠂¬Å"tremendously powerful, mechanically regular, and highly dangerous† (p. 30). While the dominant U. S. culture attempts to â€Å"tame nature,† the Navaho worldview seeks to live in respectful harmony with it. Theories of sickness and methods of healing make up a large part of this great counterpoint focused on harmony: The stricken patient is given a vocabulary in terms of which to grasp the nature of his or her distress and relate it to the wider world (Geertz, 1973), providing an explanation, and converting energy into a form that can heal.Sandner (1979) has identified the most important values in Navaho mythology as the acquisition of supernatural power (notably for the maintenance of health), the preservation of harmony in family relationships, and the achievement of adult status. However, this status operates in tandem with cooperation with and respect for other family, clan, and community members. The diagnosis is made by the Navaho diagnostician in consultation with the patient and the patient's family, all of whom work together in determining the cause of sickness.The role of the medicine man in diagnosis is usually limited, as he later carries out instructions given by the diviner (Sandner, 1979). Navahos have constructed three major diagnostic categories of mental illness. â€Å"Moth craziness† is characterized by fits of uncontrolled behavior (e. g. , jumping into the fire like a moth), rage, violence, and convulsions; it is attributed to incestual activities. â€Å"Crazy violence† has some of the same external manifestations as â€Å"moth craziness† but is due to alcoholism. â€Å"Ghost sickness,† ascribed to sorcery, manifests in nightmares, loss of appetite, dizziness, confusion, panic, and extreme anxiety.When someone knowingly or accidentally breaches taboos or offends dangerous powers, the natural order of the universe is ruptured and â€Å"contamination† or â€Å"infection† occurs that must be redressed. Etiology is seen as the intrusion of a harmful agent that destroys the natural harmony between individuals and their surroundings, especially in circumstances of exposure to lightning, whirlwinds, or such animals as bear, deer, coyotes, porcupines, snakes, and eagles that are inappropriately trapped, killed, or eaten.Sometimes these harmful agents appear in frightening, ominous dreams. Contact with spirits of the dead is especially hazardous, as is sorcery. The diviner, the medicine man, the patient, and the patient’s family work together in determining the cause of sickness (Sander, 1979). The patient's behavior determines what type of â€Å"Chant Way† will be utilized in his or her treatment. A person who is unable to resolve grief, who harbors fears of accidents, and who speaks of chest pains usually will be told to have an â€Å"Evil Way† ceremony.The patient's dreams are important as a diagnostic aid; the most ominous dreams are those of being burned, falling off a cliff, and drowning; dreams of dead relatives are especially portentous. During treatment, the Navaho hataalii (or â€Å"singing† shaman) utilizes a number of therapeutic procedures, most notably one or more of the 10 basic â€Å"Chant Ways† and their accompanying sand paintings. These are complex rituals that center on cultural myths in which heroes or heroines once journeyed to spiritual realms to acquire special knowledge. The symptoms for which a given chant is prescribed are based on connections with the specific chant myth.For example, the â€Å"Hail Way† is prescribed for muscular tiredness and soreness because the hero, Rain Boy, suffered from these symptoms when he was attacked by his enemies; the â€Å"Big Star Way† protects the patient against the powerful influences of the stars and the dangers of the night. The â€Å"Night Way† is said to be useful for blindness, deafness, and mental illness because the â₠¬Å"Night Way† hero confronted each of these dangers. The â€Å"Beauty Way† is used for rheumatism, sore throats, digestive and urinary problems, and skin diseases—difficulties faced by the chant hero.Ritual chanting takes a multi-modal approach that contributes to its effectiveness. The repetitive nature and mythic content is easily deciphered and often repeated at appropriate times by those patients well-versed in tribal mythology. According to Sandner (1979): â€Å"The visual images of the sand paintings and the body painting, the audible recitation of prayers and songs, the touch of the prayer sticks and the hands of the medicine man, the taste of the ceremonial musk and herbal medicines, and the smell of the chant incense—all combine to convey the power of the chant to the patient† (p. 15). The hataalii, among the Navahos a male practitioner, usually displays a highly developed dramatic sense in carrying out the chant but generally avoids the cl ever sleight of hand effects used by many other cultural healing practitioners to demonstrate their abilities to the community. The chant is considered by Sandner to facilitate suggestibility. It shifts attention through repetitive singing and the use of culture-specific mythic themes.These activities prepare participants for a lengthy healing ceremony that may involve mythic images and narratives enacted in purification rites or executed in â€Å"sand paintings† composed of sand, seeds, charcoal, and flowers. Some paintings, such as those used in a â€Å"Blessing Way,† are crafted from such ingredients as corn meal, flower petals, and charcoal. From a psychological perspective, the patients â€Å"translate† these â€Å"symbols† and â€Å"metaphors† as they sit on the painting, but from their own perspective, they are interacting with some of the basic forces and energies of nature.Six steps comprise the typical â€Å"Chant Way† ritual: prep aration (in which the patient is â€Å"purified†), presentation of the patient to the healing spirits, evocation of these spirits to the place of the ceremony, identification of the patients with a positive mythic theme, transformation of the patients into a condition where ordinary and mythic time and space merge, and release from the mythic world and return to the everyday world where past transgressions are confessed, where new learnings are assimilated, and where life changes are brought to fruition.The hataalii’s performance empowers the patient by creating an alternative domain of consciousness—a â€Å"mythic reality†Ã¢â‚¬â€through the use of chants, dances, and songs (often accompanied by drums and rattles), masked dancers, purifications (e. g. , sweat baths, emetics, fumigants, lotions, herbal medicines, ritual bathing, sexual abstinence), and sand paintings. Within the context of this â€Å"mythic reality,† especially as made visible in t he designs constructed in sand by the hataalii, the patient is taken into â€Å"sacred time† and is able to bring a total attentiveness to the healing ritual.The patient follows a specific regimen for the next four days to protect members of the community from his or her newly acquired powers. The role of the community is important in another way; the chants are attended by large numbers of people, many of whom might be asked to participate. This type of participation appears to increase the patients’ sense of personal power, magnify their imagination as they attend to the chants, providing social reinforcement and increased motivation. The mentation of the practitioner, the patient, and the community may all be affected by the ceremony.The hataalii is dusted with the decorated sand, and his patients claim to feel the power emanating from the painting. This procedure resembles the enhancement of imagination common to several hypnotic procedures, and is probably further augmented by the repetitive chanting. In addition to the â€Å"Chant Way,† there are other rituals used by the hataalii, one of which is a prayer session. For example, sacred corn pollen may be sacrificed during a time of prayer in an attempt to please the spirits needed to heal the patient: This ritual must be performed perfectly and behind locked doors, often at the patient’s home.The setting for treatment usually is the Hogan, a specially constructed octagon with log walls, sealed with mud adobe. The door opens to the East, and a hole in the center of the domed ceiling lets the smoke out. Men sit on the North, women and children on the South; the sand painting occupies most of the floor, and the patient sits in the center with family and friends nearby. The door to the darkened Hogan is fastened to prevent the prayer from escaping. Sharpened flints are used to expel the evil from both the patient and the Hogan.These procedures reduce the patient's symptoms at the s ame time as they stabilize the social and emotional condition of the community. For example, the hataalii instructs the family to make elaborate preparations for their forthcoming â€Å"house call. † Upon arriving, the patients are told that the prognosis is excellent, thus fostering positive expectations (Torrey, 1986). The most important people in the patient's life often join in the prayers, reaffirming the belief that the patient will recover.Prognosis, to a large degree, depends upon the attitude of the patient. A Navaho practitioner told Sandner (1979): â€Å"If the patient really has confidence in me, then he gets cured†¦. If a person gets bitten by a snake, for example, certain prayers and songs can be used, but if the patient doesn’t have enough confidence, then the cure won't work† (pp. 17 – 18). Premature death and suicide are attributed to sorcery, the return of the dead, or to the presence of outsiders.Kluckhohn (Kluckhohn & Leighton, 19 62) noted that funeral rituals are designed to prevent or discourage dead persons from returning to threaten their relatives. The fear of spirit possession is connected with the fear of ghosts, spirits, and the dead. High suicide rates are associated with Navaho communities marked by loss of tribal identity. When a sick person's family has determined that a practitioner is necessary, a hataalii is called in, frequently accompanied by an herbalist and/or a diagnostician (both of whom are of lower status).There are some 200 plants in the Navaho pharmacopoeia and the herbalists gather these plants and make medicines, some of which are used directly, and some of which are used ceremonially by the hataalii. The diagnosticians, or â€Å"diviners,† are usually women who â€Å"listen† to the spirits and typically provide a statement of the problem. This procedure may be accompanied by such diagnostic procedures as hand trembling, star gazing, candle gazing, and crystal gazingà ¢â‚¬â€all of which involve the inward focusing of the practitioner's attention, with the purpose of facilitating insight as to the nature of the problem.Every hataalii must go through a long and arduous period of training and apprenticeship; they must earn the approval of their teachers and their community by demonstrating that they can perform successfully (Sandner, 1979). The â€Å"singing shaman’s† memory must be impeccable; the effort required to learn one major chant has been compared to that of obtaining a university degree (Sandner, 1979). A patient with a break or fracture is usually sent to an allopathic practitioner, although Sandner observed a Navaho specialist set broken bones â€Å"in a true scientific manner† (p. 8). In the Navaho system, the patients' first priority is that of treatment, and they assume the role of cooperating with the practitioner by taking an active part in their diagnosis and treatment. The major priority of the patient's fami ly is to seek diagnosis and treatment for its indisposed family members, seeking qualified personnel. It is the family’s role to determine payment, an important responsibility because some Chant Ways last for several days and the fee may exceed several months’ salary.The major priority of the patient's community is to support the sick patient. This is done by attending the Chant Way and facilitating his or her treatment. The community plays the role of preserving traditions and training new practitioners. This latter task is difficult, given the high cost of apprenticeships, especially for the hataalii. The goal of this healing model is integration within the framework of cosmic harmony, and the rejection of the effects of sorcery which are seen as alien to this harmony (Sandner, 1979).According to Kluckhohn (1962), the Navahos are â€Å"generations ahead† of U. S. physicians in treating the whole person. The goal of Navaho healing is to restore the patient's ha rmony with his or her family, clan and universe. The U. S. office of alternative medicine model In April 1995, the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) of the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) held a conference on research methodology (O'Connor, Calabrese, Cardena, Eisenberg, Fincher, Hufford, Jonas, Kaptchuck, Martin, Scott, & Zhang, 1997).The charge of this conference was to evaluate research needs in the field of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), and several working groups were created to produce consensus statements on a variety of essential topics. The panel on definition and description accepted a dual charge: to establish a definition of the field of complementary and alternative medicine for purposes of identification and research; to identify factors critical to a thorough and unbiased description of CAM systems, one that would be applicable to both quantitative and qualitative research.The panel defined CAM as follows: Complementary and alternat ive medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of healing resources that encompasses all health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the politically dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes all such practices and ideas self-defined by their users as preventing or treating illness or promoting health and well being. Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed. O'Connor et al. , 1997) The second charge of the panel was to establish a list of parameters for obtaining thorough descriptions of CAM systems. The list was constructed on 14 categories first conceptualized by Hufford (1995, p. 54ff): 1. Lexicon. What are the specialized terms in the system? 2. Taxonomy. What classes of health and sickness does the system recognize and address? 3. Epistemology. How was the body of knowledge derived? 4 . Theories. What are the key mechanisms understood to be? 5. Goals for Interventions. What are the primary goals of the system? 6.Outcome Measures. What constitutes a successful intervention? 7. Social Organization. Who uses and who practices the system? 8. Specific Activities. What do the practitioners do? What do they use? 9. Responsibilities. What are the responsibilities of the practitioners, patients, families, and community members? 10. Scope. How extensive are the system’s applications? 11. Analysis of Benefits and Barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? 12. Views of Suffering and Death. How does the system view suffering and death? 13. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System.What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide? How does this system interact with the dominant system? The 14th category regards research methods and it not appropriate for this essay, one which focuses on descriptions. Peruvian Curanderismo The OAM categories can be illustrated with an Andean ethnomedical system, namely Pachakuti (i. e. , â€Å"world reversal† or â€Å"transformation†) Mesa Curanderismo, a tradition deeply rooted in the Huachuma and Paqokuna traditions and blended with aspects of Paqokuna Curanderismo. They have been adapted to become accessible to the industrialized world by OscarMiro-Quesada of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. I have discussed this system with two of its leading English-speaking practitioners, Oscar Miro-Quesada (2002) and his student Matthew Magee (2002). In addition, I have observed Magee perform two ritualistic Mesa ceremonies. Because of its complexity and sophistication, this system can be described in terms of the OAM categories (O'Connor et al. , 1997): 1. Lexicon. Specialized terms come from Spanish, Aymara (an Andean language), and two forms of assimilated Quechua language, the â€Å"rural† form (i. e. , Runasimi) and the â€Å"high† form (i. . , Khapaqsimi) —the latter spoken by royalty or people in positions of power. In describing the ethnomedical and social communitary function of Peruvian Curanderismo, however, it is important to note that several terms have changed over time. For example, the contemporary terms used to describe the shaman and the sorcerer are maestro and brujo, respectively. However, if one traces the lineage of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition, one would find the terms curandero and malero (post-Conquest), hampiq and layqa (Inca pre-Conquest), and kamasqa and sonqoyog (pre-Inca) as well.There are also variations between charismatic and non-charismatic healers and, most recently, between Pachakuti Mesa practitioners and neo-shamanic practitioners. 2. Taxonomy. The Pachakuti Mesa tradition recognizes and addresses a wide variety of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual classes of health and sickness (Magee, 2002). Within this system, there are several types of ailments, and Spanish words are used to describ e them: enfermedad de dano (a sickness caused by human intention), enfermedad de Dios (a God-given sickness), contagio (contagious sickness), and encantos (sickness caused by enchantment).Examples of the most common, enfermedad de dano, include harmful intention directed toward the ears (por oreja), through the mouth (por boca), through the air (por aire), or by loss of one's â€Å"etheric body† or soul (sombra). The latter is typically brought about by susto or espanto (i. e. , magical shock or fright). More extreme is shucaque, or fright by trauma. In addition, there are sicknesses caused by envy and the â€Å"evil eye† (por mal de ojo) and by an â€Å"evil wind† (mal aire). The ritual encounter between the patient and the practitioner can be viewed as a dialogue about dano in which the shaman (i. . , curandero or curandera) uses a persuasive rhetoric (in speech and in song) in conjunction with ritualized activities to transform the patient's self-understandin g, hence his or her well-being. Most physical ailments fall into the category, enfermedad de Dios. In many traditions, practitioners do not deal with these conditions, but Pachakuti Mesa shamans are an exception. The visual symptoms of a God-given sickness are similar to the vista en virtud (â€Å"sight in virtue and power†) that practitioners manifest after ingesting the San Pedro cactus, a mind-altering substance.As a result these symptoms rarely show up in the campo medio, the â€Å"middle field† of the practitioner's healing altar, when he or she is performing a diagnostic rastero (i. e. , divination or â€Å"tracking†). 3. Epistemology. When tracing the origins of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition back through its oral lineage within Peruvian shamanism, one must go back to the Sechin culture, as well as the later Chavin, Tiahuanacu, Paracas, Nasca, Moche, Lambayeque, Chimu, Wari, Inca (or Inka), Aymara, Runa (or Quechua), and Mestiso traditions.Although archeolo gical discoveries in the 1980s suggest that Peru’s central highlands were inhabited from 8,000 BCE and the origins of Peru’s shamanic technology can be traced back at least to 2,000 BCE, many practitioners believe that Mesa-related healing practices were utilized far earlier. 4. Theories. When working with a Mesa, a practitioner's healing altar, the key mechanisms are believed to be his or her ability to control and direct unseen forces and entities.This is accomplished through proper utilization of the â€Å"field of the magician† (campo ganadero) as well as the â€Å"field of the mystic† (campo justiciero). Mastery of these two skills allows the practitioner to surrender his or her personal will or agenda, becoming an open, transparent vessel for Spirit to flow through, unhindered. The mastery of these â€Å"fields† is symbolized on either side of the Mesa, while the practitioner, as Master Healer or maestro, resides in the middle (campo medio). The healer also works with a supernatural hierarchy through a process of co-creation with Spirit.This hierarchy is believed to be a unified, interdependent system that provides practitioners with limitless sources of guidance and power. These sources include the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), Huaringas (Sacred Highland Lagoons), Pachamama (Mother Earth), Mama Killa (Grandmother Moon), Inti Tayta (Father Sun), Auquis (Nature Spirits), Tirakuna (the â€Å"Watchers†Ã¢â‚¬ ), Mallquis (Tree Spirits), Machukuna (Ancestors), Machula Aulanchis (Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†), tutelary animal allies, the elements of nature (e. g. , unu, wayra, nina, allpa), and various Roman Catholic saints (e. . , San Cipriano of Antioch, Brother Martin de Porres). Working with these sources requires a delicate balance, not only through the practitioner's negotiation of control and surrender, but through living a lifestyle that reflects this balance (ayni or â€Å"sacred reciprocity†). Train ing involves a culturally sanctioned â€Å"calling† into the tradition. When a maestro passes on his or her knowledge or bequeaths one's practice to an initiate, there is an initiatory phenomenon (karpays) and a â€Å"magical contract† (pacto magico). . Goals for Interventions. Healing is a spiritual phenomenon. Sickness is considered to have its origin in, and gain its meaning from, the Spirit world. The purpose of life itself is to be initiated into the visionary regions of Spirit and to maintain oneself in concert with all creation (Achterberg, 1985). Hence, the goal for intervention in Pachakuti Mesa Curanderismo is a successful florecimiento (â€Å"flowering of fortune† healing ritual) that is used to strengthen a person's physical and spiritual systems.Strengthening a patient's runa kurku k'anchay (â€Å"luminous body†), as opposed to suppressing the symptom, empowers the patient to remove the sickness-causing intrusion with his or her own innate he aling capacities. Once the patient's personal power has been augmented, there is often a need to go further. This is especially true if the problem is extreme, as in â€Å"soul loss,† â€Å"possession,† â€Å"enchantments,† and potent acts of dano (e. g. , curses, certain types of contagion).In these cases, there is often a need to intervene on behalf of a patient with specific techniques for removal in the form of extraction (chupa), or counteracting the attack through ritual battle (volteando, volteada, or botando in which the curse is thrown back to its sender). Successful interventions of this kind usually completely disperse the patient's negative condition and symptoms, and generate sickness in the person who initiated the curse. Depending on the original severity of the curse, death of the sorcerer has been known to occur. 6. Outcome Measures.A successful intervention is gauged primarily by the quality of the florecimiento, which brings about the energeti c restoration or supplementation of a person's potentials. This â€Å"flowering† of dormant potentialities brings forth qualities in the person necessary to maintain a sustainable livelihood. 7. Social Organization. Depending on the level of shamanic mastery attained, practitioners will be assigned various civic units of geographical space in which to work, ranging from the ayllu (extended family or community), to the llaqta (village or town), and finally the suyu (region).A curandero (or curandera) performs shamanic functions in this system. They include working with sicknesses brought about by sorcery, imbalance, envy, etc. , providing insight into conditions of the harvest, resolving interpersonal conflicts, influencing the weather, finding lost items (as well as lost persons or souls), and attending to a variety of spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical conditions. These healing sessions are primarily conducted on Tuesdays and Fridays.The curandero (or curandera) also performs specific ceremonial services for the community, such as providing ritual feedings (offrendas, despachos, or haywarikuys) for Pachamama (Mother Earth), the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), and various supernatural beings (such as the â€Å"Watchers,† Nature Spirits, Tree Spirits, the Ancestors, the Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†). A despacho or haywarikuy is a ritual offering used to promote a reciprocal exchange of thanks between human communities and the natural world.In the Paqokuna tradition, the pampa misayoq (ritual specialist) may learn to create and perform several hundred different types of despacho or haywarikuy ceremonial rituals. The performances are quite diverse and comprise 24 basic elements (recados) in the form of plant, animal, mineral, and human made products. All of these elements are reverently arranged on a square sheet of paper and either burned or buried as a way to promote the lifestyle of ayna (sacred reciprocity). There are offerings for birt hs, deaths, marriages, good luck, prosperity, longevity, and harvests, to name a few.It is also common for practitioners to use despachos to bless certain spaces, such as living quarters, work places, and sacred sites. There are various types of curanderos and curanderas, e. g. , the alto misayoq (herbalists), the pampa misayoq (ritual specialists), and the kuraq akulleq (literally, â€Å"master chewers of coca†). The latter is considered to have attained the highest level of mastery and rank within the shamanic hierarchy. Both males (curanderos) and females (curanderas) are employed as healing practitioners in this tradition.The services of a brujo (or sorcerer) can be purchased to adversely affect the health of a rival, or to assure success in business, love, and other aspects of personal gain. The person who has â€Å"hired† a brujo may reveal this fact to an ally, who will subsequently pass the news along a network that eventually leads to the intended target. Simi larly, the curandero’s or curandera's analysis of the source of a patient’s suffering is often a topic of subsequent conversation between social intimates of the patient; this is also true of the countermeasures (e. g. , the volteada or ritual in which sorcery is reversed) often used by the shaman.Potential patients for both the curandero and brujo include most of the members of the community, but when seeking medical assistance from the curandero, patients also commonly see both a curandero and an allopathic physician, often not openly discussing their visit to the former. This reluctance to reveal utilization of the indigenous healing system applies to any member of the social system, from the wealthy business executive to the poor farmer. Patients of curanderos and brujos include owners of businesses, political office holders, educators, military officers, and even a few medical professionals.These persons are willing to spend significant amounts of money and subjec t themselves to physically exhausting ritual treatments because they have shared with curanderos the belief that sorcery can be the cause of sickness. The majority of patients for both the curandero and brujo are women. This may be due to the inferior role of the female as a subordinate within the public transcript of male privileged society (e. g. , the values of machismo which support gender-based hierarchies, and the subsequent psychological and social conflicts that arise as a result).Through the sorcerer, women can gain access to powers that guarantee spousal fidelity (e. g. , â€Å"love magic†), thus eliminating the competition (e. g. , dano). Even the apprehension that a woman might pursue this alternative can act as an effective sanction. The curandero, on the other hand, provides women with the means to redress wrongs and to hold men accountable for their actions. 8. Specific Activities. a. Diagnosis: Diagnosis can be carried out through a variety of activities, for example, a rastreo (divining and tracking), coca leaf divination, reading the entrails of a guinea pig, or casting shells, etc.However, the source of diagnosis most commonly utilized in healing situations by Huachuma curanderos is the San Pedro cactus. The entheogenic San Pedro imbues the healer with vista en virtud (virtue, vision, and insight), which enables him or her to diagnose not only the illness, aliment, or disease of a patient, but often the source of said illness, aliment, or disease and specific ways to cure it. The curandero’s mesa (personal healing altar) also plays a vital role in the divinatory process of diagnosis, e. g. , by speaking to the curandero through the cuenta (the history, story, narrative, or â€Å"account†) of a specific piece or pieces.There are also practitioners who will â€Å"read† the energy of a person’s poq’po or wayrari (so-called â€Å"electromagnetic energy field†) to detect imbalances or deficiencies within that energy field and as a means for diagnosis. Ultimately, the above forms of diagnosis are highly effective and are commonly referred to by anthropologists because of the mystical flavor of shamanic healing arts. However, one must not overlook the curandero’s keen ability to observe with his or her senses (e. g. , simply observing how a person looks, smells, feels, interacts with the world).Curanderos will also often check a person’s tongue, nose, eyes, ears, glands, etc. , as a means for diagnosis. The combination of practical and mystical forms of diagnosis have availed the curandero with a high degree of accuracy regarding diagnosis. b. Treatment: The various modes of treatment employed by the curandero are as diverse as the conditions requiring treatment. However, nearly all treatments involve the use of a mesa (healing altar). A mesa is the sacred healing altar of a curandero, one that works in mediation with spiritual and cosmic forces for ritual healing .It is a microcosmic embodiment of a macrocosmic reality. This shamanic altar contains ritually empowered objects, which are aesthetically arranged on a sacred textile (unkhunas) to reflect the system of medicine employed by its carrier, e. g. , his or her lineage, cosmological background, animal allies, spirit guides, personal apukuna and huaringas (sacred mountains and lagoons). There are four kinds of objects primarily incorporated into a Pachakuti Mesa: khuyas (sacred stones), sepkas (power objects), estrellas (gifts from the spirits of the mountains), and enqas (totem fetishes).Among these, it is also common to find batas, palos, and espadas (staffs, sticks, and swords used for protection), florecimientos, (extractions, infusions, ritual battle), pututus (conch shells used to â€Å"call in† spiritual assistance and loosen blocks in an person’s body), seguros (good luck charms, protection pieces), rumikuna or khuyas (stones used for healing), condor feathers (used for directing energy and cleansing a person’s poq’po or energy field), huacos (objects and artifacts from Colonial and pre-Columbian times used to anchor specific energies into the medicine ground, often that of the ancestors), agua de Florida or agua de Kananga (colognes and perfumes, which are spayed through the mouth for cleansing and purification), rattles and whistles (to balance or bring in energy, commonly used when singing tarjos or medicine songs).It is also common to find candles, crosses, images of Roman Catholic saints, meteorites, ceremonially woven belts (chunpis), crystals, holy water, water from the melting ice of glaciers, San Pedro cactus, tobacco, coca leaves, singha (a combination of coca, tobacco, cane alcohol, and such perfumes as agua de florida, taboo, and siete poderes (which is imbibed through the nose), and incenses such as palo santo or copal. An herbal pharmacopoeia can occasionally be found as well. These objects (as well as the items spec ific to the individual mesa carrier) are arranged in a spatial configuration on the sacred textiles (unkhunas) and worked with to assist in the attainment of physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental integration and balance for the patient in the healing session.When a Pachakuti Mesa is used in ritual healing the distinction between the symbol and that which the symbol represents is dissolved. The objects arranged upon the mesa become the mountains, the rivers, the puma, or the empowered representation of the curandero’s own healing. Within this state of non-ordinary consciousness the line that delineates subject and object blurs, and the curandero is able to work with the mesa to bring about healing for the patient on an energetic level, which working at the source of the condition rather than through medicating the symptoms. Treatment also commonly involves incorporating the family members of the patient in the healing ceremony.This helps ensure that the patient will not o nly return to his or her community transformed, but he or she will return to a transformed community as well. Curanderos often find themselves acting simultaneously as apologists for, and avengers of, social injustices. 9. Responsibilities. a. Practitioner responsibilities: To attain a competent level of mastery through apprenticeship and experiential training, the aspiring practitioner must complete a series of rites of passage (karpays) governed by his or her teacher, elders and peers in the tradition, and the spiritual hierarchy. An example of the latter would be a demonstration of using coca leaves for diagnostic purposes.Once an apprentice is deemed qualified by his or her community, he or she may begin seeing patients on a small scale, but must build a solid reputation as a competent healer. This requires that the curandero consistently provide accurate diagnosis and effective treatment for the patients in need of healing. The curandero is also responsible to recommend alterna tive means for healing if he or she is not capable or does not specialize in the condition presented by the patient. In addition to being a qualified and capable healer, the curandero must also live a lifestyle of ayni, which reflects not the qualities of the tradition, but the living example of balance mirrored by nature and the living cosmos.This requires one to exist in uninterrupted communion with the spiritual hierarchy, to live as a perpetual student of life, and to continually deepen one’s relationship with the phenomenal world, with one’s internal world, and with the living universe around one. b. Patient responsibility: To be open and willing to participate in the healing being offered, as well as to be willing to implement the advice or prescription suggested by the curandero. The patient is also responsible to provide some form of reciprocal exchange for the healing service provided, either monetarily or through some form of barter or trade. c. Family respon sibility: To be present for the healing ceremony if possible, and to provide support with the information gained from the healing session to ensure the patient is able to recover in an environment that supports this new, transformed paradigm.The family is also responsible for communicating this information to pertinent community members who can further reinforce the transformed living environment for the patient. The family is often responsible to help compensate the curandero, either through monetary means or through trade if the patient is unable to do so. d. Community responsibility: To be a supplemental presence of support for the patient and to reinforce the transformed living environment for the person in transition. 10. Scope. This type of Peruvian shamanism has been practiced over the millennium in remote, northern areas of Peru. This isolation has helped Pachakuti practitioners preserve their independence and their prerogatives.The apparent success of the Pachakuti system i n its place of origin is an additional reason for its longevity. The scope of this healing system is comprehensive, as it is used for physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual problems. However, there are allopathic treatments and technologies that would bolster traditional medicine, and well-meaning curanderos and curanderas often endeavor to make referrals to a clinic or hospital (typically, at a distance) if that would help their patient. 11. Analysis of benefits and barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? Due to the recent advances in allopathic medical technology, competition between biomedical organizations and indigenous systems is becoming more common.The boundaries that delineate these two systems, and the conditions they address, are often blurred. Poor people often turn to indigenous healers because biomedical treatments are too expensive. However, curanderos are not part of a recognized profession and therefore operate in legal and social marginality. Many curanderos experience harassment from local police, who use rarely enforced legal restrictions on non-licensed medical practitioners to extort protection payments. Church and civic officials have also been party to repressive measures against curanderos. Curanderos certainly recognize the tenuous position that they occupy in the Peruvian medical system.Some prefer to maintain a very low profile to avoid the notice of local officials, for example, by performing their ritual sessions in remote agricultural fields. Other curanderos bank on the support of well-connected patients to keep them out of trouble. 12. Views of suffering and death. This system holds that there is a basic continuity between life and death. When the physical body dies, life and death are not seen as separate, for life cannot exist without death. When the physical body dies it goes into the Earth and feeds it, giving life to the plants and trees. The plants feed the animals, who feed the Earth, ad infinitum, in a self-regulating interdependent relationship seen as the great web of life.All things are born from Pachamama (Mother Earth) and all things shall return to her. Views of the afterlife vary from practitioner to practitioner but most believe in life after the physical body dies. All in all, death is seen as a natural process, inseparable from life. Anthropologists have long noted that life’s transitions (i. e. , birth, death) are commonly marked by elaborate rituals, the purpose of which is to smooth the disruption to the social order that such status changes can cause. The body of the person undergoing the transition is often the target of symbolic manipulations: special decorations (e. g. , burial costumes) and purification (e. g. , cleansing).A particularly frequent symbolic message conveyed by these rituals is death and rebirth; the person is dying from the social status previously held and being born into a new identity. Indigenous rituals are reminiscent of hospital patie nts who put on the standardized garb required by the institution, as well as the strict fasting enforced before surgery, the cleansing processes requested of the patient as well as surgical staff, the process by which the patient’s vital signs and consciousness are taken to a death-like state, and the patient's frequently cited post-surgery sense of being reborn. The fact that all these features have medical justifications and explanations does not diminish their potential symbolic impact. Much of the suffering experienced by Peruvians is attributed to acts of dano, or sorcery.This is especially potent in a society like that of Peru where personal relationships are critical to economic survival and where the powers of the sorcerer and the curandero are assumed to have empirically verifiable effects. Dano, as a threat or as an accepted diagnosis, can have serious social repercussions no matter how outsiders to the tradition might view the forces that the sorcerers claim to con trol. Peruvian society’s rigid social hierarchies make people increasingly dependent upon personal networks in order to survive. The resulting burden of economic self-interest loaded onto personal relationships has contributed to a social world in which mistrust inevitably accompanies interdependence.It should not be surprising, therefore, that social relations would be the assumed source of misfortune and suffering for rural Peruvians. This stands in contrast with traditional Andean attributions of sickness to natural forces and supernatural transgressions. 12. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System. What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide and how does this system interact with the dominant system? On the one hand, Miro-Quesada (2002) believes that global shamanism is an emerging phenomenon of the 21st century. The Pachakuti teachings are intended to empower all interested persons, allowing them to work with unseen forces in order to promote healing and balance through spiritual mediation.But on the other hand, the dominant role being played by allopathic biomedicine often rules out people’s interest and participation in an indigenous healing system (e. g. , Levi-Strauss, 1955). Conclusion On July 14, 2003, Matthew Magee performed a ritualistic ceremony on the top of Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California, in the spirit of Kamasqa Curanderismo, one of the components of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. This ceremony waves together several themes that expressed the participants' reverence for the Earth as teacher and mother. Together, the group created a consecrated Earth offering (despacho) to foster a lifestyle of sacred reciprocity (ayni) and an awareness of life's interdependence, calling upon participants to live harmoniously with oneself, with others, and with the planet as a whole.There are ecopsychologists who believe that healing the planet is basically a shamanic journey; if so, traditional medi cal systems can play a vital role in this endeavor. However, while herbal medicines, indigenous treatments, and shamanism are becoming faddish in the West, indigenous systems in their original contexts are becoming increasingly endangered. It is crucial to support indigenous cultures and learn what shamanism and related systems of healing have to offer the postmodern world before archival research in libraries replaces field research as the best available method for investigating these healing systems. Their longevity indicates that they have served many groups of eople quite well over the millennia. The question remains as to what they can offer a world where allopathic biomedicine is not only revered but also powerful, a world in which reality is constricted to measurable physical dimensions and alternative perspectives are dismissed as â€Å"folk psychology† (Kelly, Kelly, Crabtree, Gauld, Grosso, & Gordon, 2007, p. 54). This discussion of Pachakuti and Navaho healing mode ls has demonstrated the adaptability of many traditional healing systems to conditions in the contemporary world. The eclectic nature of the system bodes well not only for its survival but its compatibility with collegial practitioners of allopathic medicine.Finally, the ecological emphasis of the two systems provide inspiration for ecologists and their colleagues who agree with indigenous practitioners that the Earth is at risk, and that collaborative efforts are needed to redress the natural balance. References Achterberg, J. (1985). Imagery in healing: Shamanism and modern medicine. Boston: Shambhala. 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